Table 4 List of wild edible plants used by local people in Semnan Province (Shahrood), Iran. Families were presented in bold and species in italic

Amaryllidaceae

Allium grande Lipsky (9873)

Mamado

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts, Leaves

C

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Kashk, Veg bread, Yogurt

March–April

RA, FO

21

0.182

0.477

NR

Allium iranicum (Wendelbo) Wendelbo (9860)

Sebi

Herb

Whole plant

[41]: Leaves, Stem, Flowe

[93]: Leaves, bulb

C, D, R, P

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Kashk, Yogurt, salad, Veg bread, Pickled

([41, 55]: edible)

May–June

RA

75

0.432

1.705

[41,, 51, 93]

Allium paradoxum) M.Bieb.) G.Don (9826)

Alahzo

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts

[42]: Leaves

C, R

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Herb stew, salad, Veg bread

([42]: edible)

March–April

RA, FO

20

0.136

0.455

[42, 51]

Allium sp. (9889)

Siyr kuhi

Herb

Young leaves, Bulb

C, R

Soup, Yogurt

April–June

RA, FO

3

0.045

0.068

NR

Allium umbilicatum Boiss. (9840)

Siyr kelagh-Siyr se kohe

Herb

Whole plant

C, D, R

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Kashk, salad, Veg bread

April–June

AV

65

0.523

1.477

NR

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus retroflexus L. (9861)

Eshkeno-Taj Khorus

Herb

Young leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup

April–July

AV

6

0.068

0.136

NR

Atriplex micrantha Ledeb. (9879)

Shalme-Salmeh-Selmoo

Herb

Young leaves, Leaves

C, D, R

Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Yogurt, salad, Veg bread

April–June

AV, RA, HS

43

0.386

0.977

NR

Blitum virgatum L. (9874)

Esfenaj kuhi

Herb

Young leaves, Leaves

C

Soup, Herb stew, Yogurt

April–June

RA, FO, SP

6

0.091

0.136

NR

Suaeda acuminata (C.A.Mey.) Moq. (9883)

Kakel shor

Herb

Young aerial parts

C

Rice veg, Soup, Yogurt

April–May

AV, RA

10

0.136

0.227

NR

Apiaceae

Daucus carota L. (9875)

Havijoo

Herb

Young leaves, Tuber

[59]: Stem, root

C, R

Rice veg, Soup, Snack

([59]: edible)

April–June

AV

5

0.045

0.114

[59]

Elwendia cylindrica (Boiss. & Hausskn.) Pimenov & Kljuykov (9852)

Sar gazero, Shen ghazero

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Veg bread

April–May

RA, SP

11

0.136

0.25

NR

Elwendia sp. (9887)

Ziyreh kuhi

Herb

Seed

D

Rice veg,

May–June

RA

7

0.114

0.159

NR

Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (9841)

Panjeh kolago-Sag-Pakelagh

Herb

Young aerial parts, Leaves

[58]: Whole plant

[41]: Leaves, Stem

[59]: Aerial part, Stem, Leaf, Seed

[43]: Aerial parts

[87]: Leaves, Seed

[90]: Seed

[49]: Plant limbs

C, D, R

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

([41, 43, 46, 49, 58, 59, 87]: edible)

([90]: in bread & soup)

April–June

AV, RA

50

0.591

1.136

[41, 43, 46, 49, 51, 58, 59, 87, 90]

Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel (9888)

Koma-Kema

Herb

Stem

[90]: Aerial parts

C

Rice veg

([90]: Coo mixed with fried onion)

March

RA

4

0.091

0.091

[90]

Ferula sp. (9886)

Eshtelghaz

Herb

Young leaves, Flower

[90]: Aerial parts

C, P

69: Raw

Rice veg, Soup, Pickled

([90]: in bread)

May–June

RA

7

0.114

0.159

[90]

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (9842)

Shirin beydiyon

Shrub

Young aerial parts, Aerial parts, Seed

[40]: Leaves, Stem

[41]: Leaves, Stem, Root

[45]: Fruit

C, D

Rice veg

([40, 41, 45, 89: edible)

May–July

AV

4

0.091

0.091

[40, 41, 45, 89]

Scandix stellata Banks & Sol. (9827)

Shevidoo

Herb

Young aerial parts

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Herb stew

April–May

AV

9

0.159

0.205

NR

Asphodelaceae

Eremurus sp. (9828)

Serishu-Seriysh-Cheresh

Herb

Young leaves, Leaves

C

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Kashk, Yogurt, Veg bread

April–May

RA

48

0.341

1.091

NR

Asteraceae

Achillea wilhelmsii K. Koch (9863)

Marembo

Herb

Flowering aerial part

[88]: Whole plant

[46]: Leaves, Flowers

D

67: Raw

Herbal tea

([88, 90]: edible)

([46]: Herbal tea (edible))

May–July

AV, RA

2

0.045

0.045

[46, 88, 90]

Centaurea cyanus L. (9876)

Ali barkato

Herb

Young leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Soup

April–May

AV, RA

3

0.045

0.068

NR

Gundelia tournefortii L. (9878)

Kangar

Herb

Stem

[40]: Stem

[43]: Roots, Latex

[87]: Flowers, Seed

[44]: Stem

[91]: Stem, Aerial parts

[92]: Stem

[94]: Fruit

[50]: Leaf

C

62: Raw

71: Raw

Herb stew, Yogurt

([40, 43, 87, 94]: edible)

([44]: Yogurt and Stew)

([91]: with yogurt and as stew)

([92]: Raw in salad and yogurt, stew)

([50]: Boiled, stew)

April

RA

11

0.159

0.25

[40, 43, 44, 50, 51, 87, 91, 92, 94]

Scorzonera meyeri (k.k.och) Lipsch. (9885)

Shengi mar

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Herb stew

April–May

AV, RA

15

0.205

0.341

NR

Scorzonera paradoxa Fisch. & C.A.Mey. (9853)

Goseh bareh

Herb

Young leaves, Bulb

[90]: Leaf

[50]: Corm

C, R

69: Raw (fresh)

Rice veg, salad

([90]: local food)

([50]: Raw vegetables)

April–May

RA

7

0.091

0.159

[50, 90]

Sonchus oleraceus L. (9862)

Kaho

Herb

Young leaves

C

Rice veg, Coco sabzi

April–May

AV

3

0.045

0.068

NR

Tragopogon graminifolius DC. (9843)

Shengi

Herb

Whole plant

[87]: Young leaves, Root

C, D, R

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, salad

([87]66: edible)

April–July

AV

61

0.659

1.386

[87]

Berberidaceae

Berberis integerrima Bunge (9829)

Zereshk

Shrub

Young leaves, Fruit

[58]: leaves, Fruit, Root, Skin

[45, 50]: Fruit

[90, 99]: Fruit, Root

[46]: Leaves, fruits, roots and bark

[49]: Leaves, fruits, roots and bark

C, F, P

Pickled, Ripe fresh fruit, Jam

([46, 49, 58]: Barberry juice, syrup, jam)

([45, 99]: edible)

([90]: jam)

([92]: syrup)

([50]: Flavoring)

September –November

AV, RA, FO

21

0.136

0.477

[45, 46, 49, 50, 58, 90, 92, 99]

Boraginaceae

Anchusa azurea Mill. (9859)

Gozebon

Herb

Young aerial parts, Flower, Stem, Young leaves

C, R

April–June

AV, RA, RO

14

0.227

0.318

NR

Brassicaceae

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (9830)

Kelachepa-kal chopaa

Herb

Young leaves, Young Aerial parts, Leaves

[85]: Aerial part

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

([85]: edible)

April–May

AV

18

0.25

0.409

[51, 85]

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl. (9845)

Khakeshir

Herb

Young leaves, Young Aerial parts, Seed

[44, 45, 50, 88, 90, 94]: Seed

C, D

67: Raw

Rice veg

([44, 88, 90]: syrup)

([58, 88, 94, 95]: edible)

([50]: Drink)

April–June

AV, RO

4

0.045

0.091

[44, 45, 50, 51, 58, 88, 90, 94]

Lepidium draba L. (9844)

Jajo,Maqo,Jiyjo

Herb

Young leaves, Young Aerial parts, Leaves

[44]: Leaves, Young Aerial parts

[85]: Aerial part

[95]: Aerial parts, Laef and flowe

[99]: Leaves, Seeds

[50]: Laef

C, D, R

62: Raw, Cooked

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, salad, Veg bread

([85]: Young leaves are cooked with rice)

([44]: Raw and cooked with dairy)

([90]: local food)

([99]: Edible leaves)

([50]: Pottage, omelet, boiled, herb rice pilaf)

April–June

AV, RA, RO

56

0.477

1.273

[44, 50, 85, 90, 95, 99]

Cannabaceae

Celtis caucasica Willd. (9877)

Teyfor

Tree

Fruit

D, F

Ripe fresh fruit, Snack

October–November

AV, FO

6

0.068

0.136

NR

Capparaceae

Capparis spinosa L. (9872)

Hendoaneh abojahl

Shrub

Fruit

[84]: Flowers, Fruit, leaves, Root

[43, 45, 50]: Fruit, Flowers

[85]: Fruit

P

Pickled

([43, 45, 89]: edible)

([84, 85]: Fruit as pickle)

([50]: Omelet, pickle)

July–August

AV, RA, GR

4

0.091

0.091

[43, 45, 84, 85, 89]

Caryophyllaceae

Gypsophila sp. (9846)

Gandemoo

Herb

Young leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

April–May

AV

8

0.091

0.182

NR

Lepyrodiclis stellarioides Schrenk. ex Fisch. & C.A Mey. (9831)

Gandem sheloo

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts

C, D

Rice veg, Soup, Herb stew

April–May

AV

4

0.068

0.091

NR

Silene conoidea L. (9847)

Mar gandemoo

Herb

Young aerial parts

C, D

Soup, Herb stew

April–May

AV

4

0.068

0.091

NR

Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (9832)

Piyloo

Herb

Young aerial parts

C

Soup, Herb stew

April–June

SP, AF

5

0.091

0.114

NR

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis L. (9864)

Ey roo

Herb

Young aerial parts

[44]: Leaves, Aerial parts

C

Soup, Herb stew, Yogurt

([44]: edible)

April–May

AV, SP

8

0.091

0.182

[44]

Fabaceae

Vicia faba L. (9848)

Kharoo

Herb

Leaves, Fruit

C, R

Rice veg

May–June

AV

2

0.045

0.045

[95]

[95]: Seed

([95]: edible)

Vicia tenuifolia Roth (9849)

Nakhodo

Herb

Young leaves, Fruit

C, R

Soup, Snack

April–June

AV

1

0.023

0.023

NR

Ixioliriaceae

Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Schult. & Schult.f. (9823)

Khiyarak-Gol khiyar

Herb

Young aerial parts, Flower

[86]: Flower, leaves

[50, 90, 92]: Flower

[93]: Gland, fowers, shoot

C, R

69: Fresh

Rice veg, Soup, Herb stew, Snack

([86, 90, 92, 93]: edible)

([50]: Raw vegetables)

April–May

AV, RA, HS

3

0.045

0.068

[50, 86, 90, 92, 93]

Lamiaceae

Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. (9857)

Koti

Herb

Young aerial parts

D

Soup

([45]: edible)

May

AV

1

0.023

0.023

[45]

Lamium amplexicaule L. (9866)

Chesh chaqholoo-Chesm chaqok

Herb

Young aerial parts, Leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

April–May

AV, RA

34

0.409

0.773

NR

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (9865)

Poneh kuhi

Herb

Leaves, Aerial parts

[40, 44]: Leaves, Stem

[43, 45, 48, 50]: Leaves

[90]: Root, Seed

[98]: Leaf, flower

D, R

70: Raw

Coco sabzi, Soup, Kashk, Yogurt, salad, Veg bread, Herbal tea

([40, 43, 44, 45, 48, 89, 91, 96]: edible)

([90]: in soup, bread or as herbal Tea)

([98]: Flavoring of food and yogurt flavor)

([50]: Raw vegetables, herbal tea, flavoring)

April–October

AV, RA, SP, AF

66

0.659

1.5

[40, 43,44,45, 48, 50, 51, 89, 90, 91, 96, 98]

Nepeta sacharata Bunge (9850)

Osta qhodos

Herb

Young aerial parts, Aerial parts, Flowering aerial part

D

Rice veg, Yogurt, Herbal tea

May–June

AV, RA, HS

7

0.136

0.159

NR

Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl (9858)

Chayi kuhi-Pash pasho

Herb

Aerial parts, Flowering aerial part

[44]: Aerial parts

D

Herbal tea

([44]: edible)

May–June

RA

8

0.182

0.182

[44]

Stachys sp. (9871)

Charbe poneh

Herb

Young leaves

D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup

May–October

AV, RA, SP, AF

7

0.091

0.159

NR

Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. (9880)

Eiyshem

Herb

Leaves, Flowering aerial part

[40]: Leaves

[58]: Leaves, Flowering

[44]: Leaves, Stem

[90]: Aerial parts, Leaves

D

Kashk, Yogurt, salad, HT

([40, 44]: edible)

([58]: Tea, spices and leaves dried in buttermilk)

([90]: powdered leaf mixed with tea, yogurt, and local food)

May–June

RA

31

0.455

0.705

[40, 44, 58, 90]

Ziziphora tenuior L. (9833)

Kokol kuti

Herb

Aerial parts, Flowering aerial part

[44]: Leaves, Stem

[45]: Leaves, Flower

[90]: Aerial parts, Leaves

[50]: Leaf

D

Coco sabzi, Kashk, Yogurt, salad

([44, 45: edible)

([90]: powdered leaf mixed with tea, yogurt, and local food)

([50]: Herbal tea, flavoring)

May–July

AV, RA

20

0.341

0.455

[44, 45, 50, 90]

Malvaceae

Malva neglecta Wallr. (9851)

Meleki-Non kelaghi

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts, Leaves, Fruit

[40]: leaves, Stem

[87]: Flower, leaves

[91]: Flower, Seed

[48]: leaves

[50]: Leaf and fruit

C, D

70: Raw, cooking

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

([40, 87, 91]: edible)

([48]: Drink)

([50]: Omelet, boiled)

April–September

AV, RA

49

0.545

1.114

[40, 48, 50, 87, 91]

Papaveraceae

Papaver dubium L. (9824)

Naneh biya

Herb

Young leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup

April–May

RA, HS

7

0.114

0.159

NR

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major L. (9856)

Gadisho barg gerd-Bartang

Herb

Young leaves, Seed

[44]: leaves

[88, 97]: Seed

[46, 49]: Roots, Leaves, Seeds

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi

([62, 88, 97]: edible)

([46, 49]: Drink, syrup and drops)

April–October

AV, RA, SP

8

0.114

0.182

[44, 46, 49, 51, 88, 97]

Plantago lanceolata L. (9867)

Gadisho barg deraz-Kardi

Herb

Young leaves

[44]: Leaves, Seed

[48]: Leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup

([44]: edible)

([48]: Drink)

April–October

AV, RA, SP

7

0.091

0.159

[42, 44, ]

Pleurotaceae

Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm. (9834)

Gharch kuhi

Fungus

Aerial parts

C

Soup

May

RA

5

0.014

0.114

NR

Polygonaceae

Polygonum sp. (9869)

Qhoppeoo

Herb

Young aerial parts, Leaves

C, D

Soup, Herb stew, Yogurt

April–May

AV, SP

18

0.25

0.409

NR

Rumex sp. (9855)

Telpa-Tershe selef

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts, Leaves

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Yogurt, Veg bread

April–September

AV, RA, SP

40

0.477

0.909

NR

Portulacaeae

Portulaca oleracea L. (9835)

Khorfeh-Kholfeh

Herb

Leaves, Aerial parts, Stem

[44]: Leaves, Stem

[47, 50, 94]: Seed, Leaves

[69]: Aerial parts

C, R, P

96: Raw (fresh)

Soup, Herb stew, salad, Pickled

([44, 69, 94]: edible)

([47]: edible as vegetable)

([50]: Pastry, pickle, raw vegetables)

June–October

AV

9

0.091

0.205

[44, 47, 50, 69, 94]

Rosaceae

Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. (9882)

Velek siyah

Shrub

Fruit

[42]: Fruit

F

Ripe fresh fruit

([42]: edible)

September–December

AV, FO

6

0.068

0.136

[42]

Crataegus pseudoheterophylla Pojark. (9884)

Velek ghermez

Shrub

Fruit

F

Pickled, Ripe fresh fruit

September–December

AV, FO

7

0.068

0.159

NR

Malus sieversii f. niedzwetzkyana (9839)

siyb too sorkh

Tree

Fruit

F, P

Ripe fresh fruit, Jam

May, August

AV, RA

2

0.023

0.045

NR

Mespilus germanica L. (9836)

Kondes

Shrub

Fruit

[58]: Leaves, Seed

[42]: Fruit

F, P

46: Raw

Pickled, Ripe fresh fruit

([58]: Raw fruit, syrup and paste)

([42]: edible)

October–November

FO

6

0.045

0.136

[42, 58]

Prunus divaricata Ledeb. (9868)

Alocheh jangali

Shrub

Fruit

[42]: Fruit

C, D, F, P

Soup, Herb stew, Pickled, Ripe fresh fruit, Snack, Jam

([42]: edible)

September–October

FO

11

0.045

0.25

[42]

Prunus microcarpa C.A.Mey. (9881)

Eiyl viylo vahshi

Shrub

Fruit

F

Ripe fresh fruit

September

RA

4

0.045

0.091

NR

Pyrus boissieriana Buhse (9870)

Golabi jangali

Tree

Fruit

F

Ripe fresh fruit

October–November

FO

4

0.045

0.091

NR

Rosa canina L. (9837)

Sag teloo

Shrub

Fruit

[87]: Fruit, Flower

[42]: Fruit

D, F, P

Herbal tea, Pickled

([87]: edible)

([42]: making jam

October–November

AV, RA

4

0.045

0.091

[42, 51, 87]

Sanguisorba minor Scop. (9854)

Tonban zan ghazi-Kerafs

Herb

Young aerial parts, Leaves

[44]: Leaves

[88]: Whole plant

[94]: Fruit, Leaf

C, D

Rice veg, Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew

([44, 88]: edible)

([94]: Boiled and edible raw Raw use, boiled)

April–July

AV, RA, SP

24

0.295

0.545

[44, 88, 94]

Ulmaceae

Ulmus minor Mill. (9825)

Happo

Tree

Flower

F

Snack

April

AV, FO

2

0.045

0.045

NR

Urticaceae

Urtica dioica L. (9838)

Ghazeneh

Herb

Young leaves, Young aerial parts, Leaves

[58]: Leaves, Flowering aerial part

[41]: Leaves,Stem

[43, 48]: Leaves

[44]: Leaves, Aerial parts

[87]: Young leaves, Stem

[88]: Whole plant

[46, 49]: Leaves, Flowers, Lowering branches

C, D

46: Dried

Coco sabzi, Soup, Herb stew, Kashk, Yogurt

([41, 43, 44, 48, 58, 87, 88]: edible)

([46, 49]: In food preparation, dried and boiled (edible)

April–October

AV, RA, SP

52

0.523

1.182

[41, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 58, 87, 88]