Table 3 Knowledge of animal resource use among ethnic communities in the study area of Jhargram district
No | Category | Scientific name | Family | IUCN Status 3.1 | English name | Local name Bengali/Santali | Part/product used | Ailments treated | Preparation method | Application mode | FL | FC | Published use reports from India |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Clitellata | Hirudinaria sp (IV) (Whitman, 1886) | Cylicobdellidae | NE | Leech | Jok/Jok or hapad | Whole body | Psoriasis (DID) | Suck (Live leeches are applied to the affected area to suck and extract infected blood) | Topical | 54.54 | 54.54 | Living leeches are used in Assam to treat wounds, piles, and muscle swelling by sucking blood and pus from the affected area [149, 150]. In Chhattisgarh, the Madia tribe employs leeches to treat wounds by removing pus. Tribal communities in Central India use ash mixed with oil for baldness [151, 152]. In Maharashtra, leech therapy is practiced for piles and muscle swelling [153]. In Jammu and Kashmir, leeches are used for bloodletting to alleviate swelling, bruises, and pain [89] |
Whole body | Scabies (DID) | Suck (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 45.45 | |||||||||
2 | Arachnida | Heterometrus sp (IV) (Ehrenberg, 1828) | Scorpionidae | NE | Indian black scorpion | Kankra bichhe/Kai Kiring | Tail | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Oil (The tail is heated in a pan with coconut oil or Bengal monitor's body fat, cooled, and applied to the affected area.) | Topical | 41.81 | 58.18 | In Uttarakhand, fat is used to treat rheumatism and piles [66]. In Manipur, boiled or roasted body is used for cancer treatment [154]. In Kerala, fat is applied to treat arthritis and headache [53]. In Tamil Nadu, red scorpion is tied around malnourished children’s necks for treatment [54] |
Tail | Psoriasis (DID) | Oil (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 20.00 | |||||||||
Tail | Arthritis (ORT) | Oil (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 36.36 | |||||||||
3 | Insecta | Bombyx mori (IV) (Linnæus, 1758) | Bombycidae | NE | Silk worm | Tasar moth/Lumang | Meat | Cough (RSD) | Roasted (The fire-roasted moth is fed until symptoms subside, mainly for children) | Oral | 61.81 | 67.27 | The whole animal or ash of its body is used for digestive problems and in eye diseases in Kerala [53, 155], while dried silkworms are powdered and taken orally to treat flatulence in Jammu & Kashmir [89] |
Meat | Fever (FVR) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 18.18 | |||||||||
4 | Insecta | Apis cerana (IV) (Fabricius, 1798) | Apidae | NE | Honey bee | Moumachi/Nele | Honey | Cough (RSD) | Raw (Honey is extracted from the beehive and consumed. It is often mixed with warm or lemon juice to soothe the throat, to reduce irritation) | Oral | 94.54 | 94.54 | In Uttarakhand, honey is consumed to address weakness and applied locally for eye ailments and wound healing [66]. In Arunachal Pradesh, fresh honey is consumed for coughs and colds, used as an ointment for eye problems, and consumed for throat pain and irregular menstruation [27, 91]. In Assam, honey treats coughs and colds, and the whole body of bees are consumed for cancer treatment [37, 150]. In Rajasthan, honey is rubbed on gums of children to aid teething [156]. In Kerala, honey is used for asthma, diarrhea, and vomiting [53]. In Manipur, it treats joint pain and purifies blood [154]. In Odisha, the whole body is consumed for gastric ulcers [23], while in Purulia, West Bengal, bee wax is applied for rheumatism [67]. In Sikkim, honey is consumed for coughs and colds [67]. In Tamil Nadu, honey treats vomiting, obesity, and cataracts [54]. In Madhya Pradesh, beehive fumes are used for conjunctivitis. In Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, honey treats throat pain, burns, and cuts [88] |
Honey | Fever (FVR) | Raw (Honey is combined with hot water, ginger, or turmeric to promote sweating) | Oral | 61.81 | |||||||||
Honey | Diarrhea (GIA) | Raw (Consumed to treat diarrhea, as it helps to soothe the digestive system, reduce irritation) | Oral | 43.63 | |||||||||
Honey | Indigestion (GIA) | Raw (A mixture of honey and ginger is consumed to improve digestion, reduce bloating, and alleviate stomach discomfort) | Oral | 49.09 | |||||||||
Honey | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Raw (Honey is consumed with warm water or lemon to promote heart health) | Oral | 47.27 | |||||||||
Honey | Scratch on Face or Skin Cut (DID) | Raw (Honey is applied directly to the wound to speed up healing, reduce infection) | Topical | 36.36 | |||||||||
Honey | Wound Healing (DID) | Raw (Honey is applied directly to the wound to speed up healing, reduce infection) | Topical | 40.00 | |||||||||
Honey | Immunity Booster (GH) | Raw (Small amount of honey is consumed regularly to strengthen the immune system) | Oral | 60.00 | |||||||||
Honey | Muscle Pain or Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Raw (Raw honey is applied topically to the affected area to reduce pain and inflammation) | Topical | 10.90 | |||||||||
Honey | Joint Pain (ORT) | Raw (Honey is applied locally to the affected joints to provide relief from pain) | Topical | 14.54 | |||||||||
Wax | Burning (DID) | Raw (After honey extraction, the bee hives are cut into small pieces and placed in a clean cloth. The mixture is then heated in a pan with water, allowing the melted wax to separate and float on the surface. Once cooled, the wax is removed and applied to the affected area) | Topical | 41.81 | |||||||||
Wax | Wound Healing (DID) | Raw (Wax is applied to the affected area to promote healing, reduce inflammation, and protect the wound from infection) | Topical | 38.18 | |||||||||
5 | Insecta | Hydrophilus sp (IV) (Geoffroy, 1762) | Hydrophilidae | NE | Water scavenger beetle | Jal Ghurni/Uru | Whole body | Tetany (SMSD) | Raw (The entire animal is consumed raw, often along with a banana, as for tetany) | Oral | 14.54 | 14.54 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
6 | Insecta | Oecophylla smaragdina (IV) (Fabricius, 1775) | Formicidae | NE | Weaver ant | Lal Pipre/Kurkut or Hao | Whole body | Cough (RSD) | Cooked (Dead ants are cooked with oil and mustard paste, reducing throat inflammation, and aiding in cough relief) | Oral | 81.81 | 81.81 | In Assam it is used for digestive issues and nose bleeding [157], in Kerala for treating myopia [53], and in Odisha for respiratory diseases, inflammation, and lactation support [23]. In Tamil Nadu, their larvae treat pediatric ailments [54], in Chhattisgarh they improve eyesight and treat malaria [152], and in Madhya Pradesh, they are eaten with rice for gastritis prevention and nutrition [158] |
Whole body | Fever (FVR) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 65.45 | |||||||||
7 | Insecta | Periplaneta americana (IV) (Linnæus, 1758) | Blattidae | NE | Cockroach | Arsola/Katya or Asla | Fecal matter | Indigestion/Constipation (GIA) | Paste (The fecal matter is mixed with a small amount of water to create a semi-solid paste which is consumed to help alleviate symptoms of indigestion and constipation) | Oral | 23.63 | 40 | In Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh [91], Maharashtra [153], and Assam [37], the whole body is used for asthma. In Manipur, the whole body is consumed for diabetes [154]. Among the Bhotiya tribe, Uttarakhand, the whole body is used for tuberculosis [66]. In Kerala, the whole body treats earaches, tetanus, dyspnea, and urinary obstruction [53]. In Odisha, the whole body is used for asthma and as an anti-inflammatory agent [23] |
Whole body | Asthma (RSD) | Boil (soup) (The animal's meat is boiled in water to prepare a soup. The resulting broth is then consumed by the patient, to help alleviate asthma symptoms) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Whole body | Cough and Cold (RSD) | Boil (soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 32.72 | |||||||||
8 | Insecta | Reticulitermes sp (IV) (Holmgren, 1913) | Rhinotermitidae | NE | Termite | Kaloiburi/Badlapoka or Nidir | Whole body | Malnutrition (GH) | Fried (The entire body is fried in oil and consumed with rice to help address malnutrition, providing essential nutrients and energy) | Oral | 43.63 | 67.27 | In Kerala, the whole animal is consumed raw for diabetes and for eye diseases [53] |
Whole body | Cough and Cold (RSD) | Fried (The whole body is fried in oil and consumed with warm water) | Oral | 32.72 | |||||||||
Whole body | Fever (FVR) | Fried (The entire body of the animal is fried and consumed to help alleviate fever) | Oral | 32.72 | |||||||||
Whole body | Indigestion (GIA) | Fried (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
9 | Crustacea | Palaemon sp (IV) (Weber, 1795) | Palaemonidae | NE | Prawn | Chingri/Ichok or Icha haku | Whole body | General Weakness (GH) | Fried (The entire body is fried in oil and consumed with rice) | Oral | 92.72 | 92.72 | In Silent Valley, Kerala [53], and Rajasthan [156], a species from the same family as Palaemon sp. (Palaemonidae) is powdered and taken orally as a remedy for tuberculosis. In Tripura, the whole animal is cooked and eaten to treat general weakness [159]. In Bihar, soup and curry made from species of the Palaemonidae family (Macrobrachium sp.) are used to cure anemia, vitamin deficiencies, paralysis, and arthritis, as well as to promote strength [113] |
10 | Crustacea | Scylla serrata (IV) (Forsskål, 1775) | Portunidae | LC | Crab | Kakra/Kadkom | Shell | Fontanelle Strengthening (DID) | Powdered (The shell is removed, powdered, and applied to the head of newborn babies to strengthen the soft spot (fontanelle) on the head) | Topical | 18.18 | 70.90 | In Maharashtra, whole body soup treats asthma and typhoid [153]. In Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, it aids diabetes, the elderly, and skin diseases [91]. In Assam, it treats skin allergies [157]. In Manipur, cooked crabs address smallpox, weakness, and immunity [154] |
Meat | Muscle Pain or Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Cooked (The shell is removed; the meat is cut into small pieces, boiled until soft, and then prepared with mustard oil for consumption) | Oral | 54.54 | |||||||||
Meat | Respiratory Disease (RSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 20 | |||||||||
Meat | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 23.63 | |||||||||
Meat | General Weakness (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 47.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Joint Pain (ORT) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 7.27 | |||||||||
11 | Gastropods | Bellamya bengalensis (IV) (Lamarck, 1822) | Viviparidae | LC | Snail | Gehri/Rokoi or Rokoj | Shell Water | Conjunctivitis or eye infection (EA) | Raw (The shell is carefully broken to extract the inside water, which is then applied drop by drop into the eyes to treat conjunctivitis, redness, or infections) | Topical | 81.81 | 81.81 | In Bihar, foot is consumed for night blindness, and water from soaked Bellamya bengalensis is used as eye drops for conjunctivitis [113] |
Shell Water | Lens Cleansing (EA) | Raw (The water extracted from the shell is used as a natural cleanser for cleaning the eyes and improving lens clarity. It is applied drop by drop, typically 1–2 drops per eye, once daily) | Topical | 72.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Cooked (The meat is extracted by cracking the shell, mixed with ginger–garlic paste, and cooked in mustard oil. It is consumed to promote recovery from muscle injuries) | Oral | 10.90 | |||||||||
Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 30.90 | |||||||||
Meat | Hair Care or Hair Loss (HC) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 18.18 | |||||||||
Meat | Clear Vision (EA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 58.18 | |||||||||
12 | Bivalvia | Mytilus edulis (IV) (Linnæus, 1758) | Mytilidae | LC | Edible blue mussel | Shamuk/Ketla or Ghonga | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Cooked (The meat is harvested by cracking the shell, mixed with ginger–garlic paste, and then prepared with mustard oil for consumption) | Oral | 40.00 | 72.72 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Pregnancy and Post-pregnancy Nutritional Support (GUA) | Cooked (The meat is cooked and consumed to provide essential nutrients to support maternal health during pregnancy and post-pregnancy recovery) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
Meat | Abdominal Pain (GIA) | Cooked (Consumption of cooked meat can help alleviate abdominal pain) | Oral | 38.18 | |||||||||
Meat | Lens Cleaning (EA) | Cooked (The meat is cooked and consumed to promote improve vision and cleanse the eyes) | Oral | 41.81 | |||||||||
13 | Actinopterygii | Anguilla bengalensis (V) (J. E. Gray, 1831) | Anguillidae | NT | Indian mottled eel | Kunche/Kunche or Kunchai | Whole body | Anemia (CSCD) | Cooked (The whole body is mixed with ginger–garlic paste and cooked with mustard oil for consumption that supports recovery from anemia) | Oral | 47.27 | 76.36 | In Kerala [53] and Tamil Nadu [54] the meat is cooked and consumed to treat cough. In Arunachal Pradesh body mucus is applied on burn areas of the body [55], and fresh blood is consumed to treat asthma and general weakness by Ao tribe of Nagaland [114] |
Whole body | Blood Loss (CSCD) | Cooked (The entire body is prepared in a similar manner, promoting blood replenishment, and improving overall vitality post blood loss) | Oral | 60 | |||||||||
Whole body | Muscle Pain or Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Cooked (The whole body is cooked and consumed to help alleviate muscular pain and injuries) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Whole body | Hair Loss (HC) | Cooked (The meat is cooked and consumed orally to support hair health, promote hair growth, and help prevent hair loss) | Oral | 18.18 | |||||||||
Blood | Hair Loss (HC) | Raw (Fresh fish is cut to collect its blood, which is then applied on the sculp) | Topical | 36.36 | |||||||||
Blood | Ankle Scratch (DID) | Raw (Fresh fish blood is applied topically to the ankle scratch to promote healing) | Topical | 7.27 | |||||||||
14 | Actinopterygii | Channa punctatus (V) (Bloch, 1793) | Channidae | LC | Lata fish | Letha machh/Goroi Haku | Whole body | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Cooked (The whole body is cooked with mustard oil and spices, which is then consumed to enhance libido, sexual health, and vitality in males) | Oral | 41.81 | 65.45 | In Assam, the fish is boiled and used to treat diabetes, pain, and high blood pressure [37]. The eyes, when mixed with common salt, are applied to treat corns [37]. The whole fish is used to alleviate abdominal pain. In Tamil Nadu, the fish is used for colon-related issues [54], while in Uttar Pradesh, it is used for general weakness and malaria [160] |
Whole body | Joint Pain (ORT) | Cooked (The whole body is cooked and consumed orally to help alleviate joint pain and improve mobility) | Oral | 14.54 | |||||||||
Whole body | General Weakness (GH) | Cooked (Cooked and consumed orally to help alleviate general weakness (GH). It boosts energy levels and provides essential nourishment to combat fatigue and weakness) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Whole body | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Cooked (Cooked and consumed orally to help alleviate muscle pain) | Oral | 10.90 | |||||||||
15 | Actinopterygii | Oreochromis mossambicus (V) (W. K. H. Peters, 1852) | Chiclidae | VU | Tilapia | Telapia mach/Tilapia | Skin | Burning (DID) | Raw (The skin is removed and applied raw to the affected area to treat burns, reduce pain, and promote skin healing) | Topical | 18.18 | 18.18 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
16 | Actinopterygii | Puntius sophore (V) (Hamilton, 1822) | Cyprinidae | LC | Punti fish | Puti mach/Ponta haku or Punti | Bone | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Powdered (Bones are ground into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle. Small amount of the powder is mixed with warm water or milk and consumed once or twice daily to alleviate muscle pain) | Oral | 20.00 | 43.63 | In Assam, the whole fish is used as a blood purifier [161] and cooked for eye problems [157]. In Purulia, West Bengal, it is used to address scanty milk production in breastfeeding mothers [162] |
Bone | Joint Pain (ORT) | Powdered (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 32.72 | |||||||||
Bone | Calcium Deficiency (GH) | Powdered (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 20.00 | |||||||||
17 | Amphibia | Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (V) (Daudin, 1803) | Dicroglossidae | LC | Indian bull frog | Sona bang/Baru dang or Reto | Meat | General Weakness (GH) | Roasted (The meat is prepared by removing the skin, roasting it over a fire, and seasoning it with salt and consumed to combat general weakness and restore vitality) | Oral | 10.9 | 47.27 | In Jammu & Kashmir, fat is applied topically to alleviate headache, muscular pain, and joint pain [89]. In Uttarakhand [66] and Madhya Pradesh [88], crushed flesh is used on wounds for healing. In Rajasthan [20], cooked meat is consumed for tuberculosis and cough, while in Uttar Pradesh, fresh skin is removed to treat ringworm and skin diseases [160]. In Tripura, crushed flesh is applied to wounds [159] |
Meat | Anemia (CSCD) | Roasted (The meat is roasted, sprinkled with lemon juice, and consumed orally, often to help manage anemia) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
Meat | Blood Loss (CSCD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Meat | Eczema/Atopic Dermatitis (DID) | Roasted (Consumed orally to support the management of skin conditions, promote skin healing, and aid in regeneration) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Scabies (DID) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Pain or Muscle Cramp (SMSD) | Roasted (Roasted meat mixed with a small amount of curcumin, ginger, and garlic and is consumed to alleviate muscle pain) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
Meat | Asthma (RSD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Tuberculosis (RSD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
18 | Reptilia | Fowlea piscator (V) (Schneider, 1799) | Colubridae | LC | Checkered keelback | Gharchiti/Aurachiti or Dhoda Sanp | Meat | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Roasted (After removing the skin, head, and tail, the meat is roasted over a fire and cut into small pieces, and salt is added before consumption) | Oral | 14.54 | 14.54 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Wound Healing or Skin Disease (DID) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
19 | Reptilia | Ptyas mucosa (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Colubridae | LC | Rat snake | Daransh Sap/Jamruh | Meat | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Roasted (After removing the skin, head, and tail, the meat is roasted over a fire and cut into small pieces, and salt is added before consumption) | Oral | 12.72 | 12.72 | In Kerala, fat is massaged to relieve body pain and rheumatism [155]. In Tamil Nadu, meat or soup is given orally for joint pain and swelling [163], and meat is boiled in oil and applied externally for snake bites [54]. Among the Birhor tribe of West Bengal, oil extracted from the skin is applied externally on burns and infections. In Uttarakhand, the gall bladder is cooked and eaten for diabetes [67]. In Odisha, cooked meat is prescribed to eat for body pain [23] |
Meat | Wound Healing (DID) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 7.27 | |||||||||
20 | Reptilia | Calotes versicolor (V) (Daudin, 1802) | Agamidae | LC | Oriental garden lizard | Girgiti or Roktochosha or/Kakra | Whole body | Rheumatism or Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Oil (The entire body is heated in a pan to render the Bengal Monitor's body fat into oil. The extracted oil then applied topically to the affected area) | Topical | 29.09 | 29.09 | In Tamil Nadu, blood is given with milk to prevent skin ailments in children. The meat is cleaned and boiled in Ricinus communis (castor) oil. The prepared oil is consumed orally to manage hemiplegia and convulsions [54]. In Uttarakhand, the flesh is consumed orally to manage jaundice and the flesh is boiled in oil and applied topically to aid in wound healing [66]. In Kerala, raw blood is used for skin diseases and oil extracted from meat is topically applied treat rheumatism [53]. In Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, the dried or roasted meat is traditionally consumed to manage asthma, cough, and cold [91] |
Whole body | Joint Pain (ORT) | Oil (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 16.36 | |||||||||
21 | Reptilia | Varanus bengalensis (V) (Daudin, 1802) | Varanidae | NT | Bengal monitor | Guisap/Tarhath or Satna | Meat | Immunity Booster (GH) | Cooked (The meat is prepared by removing the skin and subcutaneous fat, cutting it into medium pieces, and boiling until tender. It is then cooked with garlic-ginger paste in mustard oil and consumed orally to boost immunity and support overall health) | Oral | 30.90 | 70.90 | In Assam, burned skin ash mixed with coconut oil is used for skin diseases, and meat is consumed for body pain [150]. In Dooars, West Bengal, oil from flesh is used for rheumatic pain [164]. In Purulia, the head is used for convulsion medicine [67]. In Rajasthan, cooked flesh promotes body stamina [20]. In Jharkhand, fat is used as massage oil for aches and impotency [165]. In Madhya Pradesh, skin oil is massaged for arthritis, and the penis and testis are eaten raw as a sexual stimulant of male sex organs [88] |
Meat | Joint Pain (ORT) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 23.63 | |||||||||
Meat | Stomach Pain (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 10.90 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 41.81 | |||||||||
Fat under skin | Rheumatism or Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Oil The subcutaneous fat is carefully harvested and heated in a pan until it melts into oil. The rendered oil is then collected, cooled, and applied to affected area | Topical | 67.27 | |||||||||
Fat under skin | Joint Pain (ORT) | Oil (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 23.63 | |||||||||
22 | Reptilia | Psammophilus dorsalis (V) (Gray, 1831) | Agamidae | LC | Rock agama | Agama Girgiti or Roktochosha or/Kakra | Whole body | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Oil (The entire body is heated in a pan with Bengal Monitor’s body fat; the resulting oil is harvested through sieving and then applied to the affected area) | Topical | 23.63 | 23.63 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Whole body | Joint Pain (ORT) | Oil (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 9.09 | |||||||||
23 | Reptilia | Chamaeleo zeylanicus (V) (Laurenti, 1768) | Chamaeleonidae | LC | Indian chameleon | Bohurupi or Girgiti/Rai Kakra | Tail | Neonatal Skin Discoloration (Redness/Blackness) (DID) | Powdered (The tail is carefully dissected, sun-dried, and ground into a fine powder using a stone bowl. This powder is then mixed with breast milk and administered orally to newborns once or twice daily until the symptoms subside) | Oral | 87.27 | 87.27 | In Tiruppur, Tamil Nadu, the whole body is used for treating chronic wounds, paronychia, and paralysis; the meat is consumed for piles [163]. In Theni District, Tamil Nadu, the meat is used for treating paralysis, rheumatism, and cough [54] |
24 | Reptilia | Lissemys punctata (V) (Lacépède, 1788) | Trionychidae | VU | Indian flap shell turtle | Kachhim/Horo | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Cooked (The head, carapace, plastron, and nails are removed to harvest the meat, which is then cut into small pieces. It is marinated with ginger–garlic paste and a few drops of lemon juice, prepared with mustard oil, and then consumed) | Oral | 50.90 | 74.54 | In Rajasthan, ash from turtle carapaces is used for treating lung diseases (cough, asthma, TB) and internal injuries [156]. In Gujrat, used for pruritus and cough [136]. In Theni, Tamil Nadu, burnt shell powder is used for hemorrhoids, while shell rubbed with water is given to infants for digestion; meat consumed for asthma, cough, and metrorrhagia [54]. In Tiruppur, Tamil Nadu, meat is used for piles and fistula [163]. In Goa, plastron ash used to treat burns and swollen throats [94]. In Purulia, West Bengal, shell dust is applied to burns for skin recovery [162] |
Meat | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 23.63 | |||||||||
Meat | Indigestion (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 20 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 43.63 | |||||||||
Shell | Wound Healing (DID) | Powdered (The carapace is either burnt in fire and crushed into a fine powder or dried under sunlight and ground on a stone to create powder. The resulting powder is applied directly to the wound to promote healing and prevent infection) | Topical | 47.27 | |||||||||
Shell | Pox or Measles (DID) | Powdered (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 47.27 | |||||||||
Shell | Fontanelle Strengthening (DID) | Powdered (The powder is applied to the head of newborn babies to strengthen the soft spot, fontanelle, on the head) | Topical | 70.90 | |||||||||
25 | AVES | Gallus gallus domesticus (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Phasianidae | LC | Red jungle fowl | Bon murgi/Sim or Kurkura | Meat | Maternal Nutrition (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (The feathers are plucked, and the meat along with the skin is cut into small pieces. Cumin powder and mustard oil are added, and the mixture is boiled in water until it forms a broth-like consistency) | Oral | 58.18 | 90.90 | The Bhotiya tribe of Uttarakhand consumes chicken fat and eggs for weakness, cough, and cold [66]. Tharu tribes in Uttar Pradesh apply fresh blood to skin diseases like measles [160]. In Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, fatty oil is used for nasal congestion and burns [91]. The Tangsa and Wancho tribes use feather ash for allergies [27]. In Assam, chicken meat helps with post-labor recovery, bone fractures, and low blood pressure [150, 157]. In Kerala, chicken soup treats snake bites and raw fat is used for typhoid [53]. In Darjeeling [93] and Purulia [67] (West Bengal), chicken soup and eggs aid postpartum recovery, and raw eggs and liver oil are used for burns and skin eruptions |
Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 87.27 | |||||||||
Egg | Maternal Nutrition (GUA) | Boil (The boiled egg is deshelled and consumed) | Oral | 47.27 | |||||||||
Egg | Malnutrition (GH) | Boil (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 87.27 | |||||||||
26 | AVES | Athene brama (V) (Temminck, 1821) | Strigidae | LC | Spotted owlet | Khurule pencha/Kokor | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Cooked (Feathers are plucked; the meat is cut into small pieces, added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft) | Oral | 14.54 | 36.36 | In Kerala, liver juice is used for treating rickets, and ash from feathers is used for cough [155] |
Meat | Night Vision (EA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Head | Night Vision (EA) | Powdered (The head is separated from the body, sun-dried, and ground into a fine powder and mixed with water and consumed to enhance night vision) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
27 | AVES | Halcyon smyrnensis (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Alcedinidae | LC | White throated kingfisher | Machranga/Kikir | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Roasted (After removing the feathers, the bird is roasted with mustard oil and salt and then given to the patient) | Oral | 45.45 | 61.81 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Stomach Pain (GIA) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 16.36 | |||||||||
Meat | Typhoid (GIA) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 10.90 | |||||||||
Meat | Tetany (SMSD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 7.27 | |||||||||
28 | AVES | Dinopium benghalense (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Picidae | LC | Black rumped flameback | Katthokra/Tuh | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Roasted (The feathers are removed, and the meat is roasted over a fire with a light coating of mustard oil. Salt is sprinkled on the roasted meat, which is then served to the patient) | Oral | 52.72 | 61.81 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 3.63 | |||||||||
Meat | Stomach Pain (GIA) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
29 | AVES | Corvus splendens (V) (Vieillot, 1817) | Corvidae | LC | Crow | Patikak/Kahu | Meat | Tuberculosis (RSD) | Roasted (Feathers are removed, the body is lightly scratched, roasted over a fire with mustard oil, sprinkled with salt, and consumed orally) | Oral | 52.72 | 56.36 | The Garsiya tribe of Rajasthan applies fecal, excreta for blisters and ulcers [20]. In Tamil Nadu, bile is consumed as an aphrodisiac, mixed with honey for defective vision, and meat is cooked to treat anemia and piles [54, 98]. The Nyishi and Galo tribes of Arunachal Pradesh use dried meat for stomach upsets and to improve children’s intelligence [55]. The Ao tribe of Nagaland uses flesh for rheumatism, paralysis, and earaches [114]. In Gujarat, the Kachch community treats whooping cough with meat cooked in mustard oil [136]. The Madia tribe of Chhattisgarh uses remedies for conjunctivitis [152]. In Kerala, the Irular, Mudugar, and Kurumber tribes use meat for leucoderma [166], and bone powder is used for earaches [53] |
Meat | Lung Problem (RSD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 43.63 | |||||||||
Meat | Typhoid (GIA) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
Meat | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Roasted (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 3.63 | |||||||||
30 | AVES | Cuculus micropterus (V) (Gould, 1838) | Cuculidae | LC | Indian cuckoo | Bou katha kou/Kurih | Meat | Bone Fracture (ORT) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked; the meat is sliced into small pieces, salted, and boiled in water until soft. The prepared soup is consumed by the patient until symptoms are relieved) | Oral | 36.36 | 63.63 | In Kerala, the flesh is cooked and consumed for treating cough and breathing trouble [155] |
Meat | General Weakness (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 54.54 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
31 | AVES | Centropus sinensis (V) (Stephens, 1815) | Cuculidae | LC | Greater coucal | Kukkal/Kuili | Meat | Malnutrition (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked; the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with salt, boiled in water until soft, and given to the patient until the symptoms are relieved) | Oral | 63.63 | 67.27 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Larynx and Vocal Cord problems (ENT) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Respiratory Diseases (RSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 34.54 | |||||||||
32 | AVES | Amaurornis phoenicurus (V) (Pennant, 1769) | Rallidae | LC | White breasted waterhen | Dahuk/Dahuk | Meat | Weakness (GH) | Cooked (Feathers are plucked; the meat is cut into small pieces, added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and then given to the patient) | Oral | 54.54 | 58.18 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Indigestion (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 32.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 14.54 | |||||||||
33 | AVES | Ardeola grayii (V) (Sykes, 1832) | Ardeidae | LC | Indian pond heron | Kanibok/Pushi kong | Meat | General Health and Nutritional Supplement (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked; the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil, boiled in water until soft, and then given to the patient) | Oral | 56.36 | 72.72 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Gall Bladder Stone (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 21.81 | |||||||||
34 | AVES | Egretta garzetta (V) (Linnaeus, 1766) | Ardeidae | LC | Small white heron | Choto boga/Pushi kong | Meat | General Health and Nutritional Supplement (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked; the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil, boiled in water until soft, and then given to the patient) | Oral | 56.36 | 72.72 | In Silent Valley, Kerala, and Theni, Tamil Nadu, the meat is cooked and consumed as an immune enhancer [53, 54]. In, Tamil Nadu, the cooked meat is consumed for body strength [24] |
Meat | Gall Bladder Stone (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 21.81 | |||||||||
35 | AVES | Ardea alba (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Ardeidae | LC | large white heron | Boro boga/Kong | Meat | General Health and Nutritional Supplement (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked; the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil, boiled in water until soft, and then given to the patient) | Oral | “ | 76.36 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Gall Bladder Stone (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 25.45 | |||||||||
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 21.81 | |||||||||
36 | AVES | Anas poecilorhyncha (V) (Forster, 1781) | Anatidae | LC | Indian spotbilled duck | Mete hans/Bali Gende | Meat | Muscle Pain or Muscle Injury (SMSD) | Cooked (Feathers are plucked; the meat is cut into small pieces, added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and then given to the patient) | Oral | 34.54 | 74.54 | In Assam, for slurred speech, the tongue is burned, and the smoky tongue is consumed with salt [150]. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, cooked meat is used to treat fever, while boiled eggs with salt are prescribed for erectile dysfunction [53, 54]. In Western Himalayas, Roasted flesh is used to increase virility and libido [95] |
Meat | Skin Care (DID) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Meat | General Health and Nutritional Supplement (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 45.45 | |||||||||
Meat | Gall Bladder Stone (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 52.72 | |||||||||
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 38.18 | |||||||||
Feather | Water Removal from Ear (ENT) | Raw (Feather is used as roving gear to remove water from ear canal) | Topical | 49.09 | |||||||||
37 | AVES | Spilopelia chinensis (V) (Scopoli, 1786) | Columbidae | LC | Spotted dove | Tila ghughu/Potam | Meat | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked, the meat is cut into small pieces, mixed with cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil, then boiled until tender; it is given to females to support menstrual health and enhance fertility.) | Oral | 78.18 | 76.36 | In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the meat is traditionally used to treat asthma [53, 54] |
Meat | Muscle Weakness (SMSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
38 | AVES | Streptopelia decaocto (V) (Frivaldszky, 1838) | Columbidae | LC | Eurasian collard dove | Kola ghughu/Mala Potam | Meat | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked, the meat is cut into small pieces, mixed with cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil, then boiled until tender; it is given to females to support menstrual health and enhance fertility) | Oral | 78.18 | 76.36 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Muscle Weakness (SMSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
39 | AVES | Columba livia (V) (Gmelin, JF, 1789) | Columbidae | LC | Common pigeon | Jalali kobutor or Payra/Paroya | Meat | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked, the meat is sliced into small pieces, and then cumin powder, salt, and mustard oil are added. It is boiled in water until soft and then consumed for cardiac health) | Oral | 63.63 | 90.90 | In Central India [151], as well as in Gujarat [167] and Rajasthan [20], fresh blood is used to treat paralysis. In Maharashtra, raw blood is consumed for leprosy, and the flesh of young birds is cooked to aid recovery from general weakness [153]. Among the Ao tribe of Nagaland, soup is warmed and used for asthma [114]. In Tamil Nadu, cooked meat is consumed for bronchitis [98], and blood is applied externally for rheumatoid arthritis [163]. In Assam, meat is cooked or boiled with spices to treat anemia and low blood pressure [150, 157]. In Darjeeling, West Bengal, soup or cooked meat is given to asthma patients [93]. In Odisha, the meat of black pigeon is used to treat paralysis [23] |
Meat | Blood Pressure (CSCD) | Cooked (Feathers are plucked; the meat is cut into small pieces, added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft) | Oral | 54.54 | |||||||||
Meat | Iron Deficiency (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 47.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Intestinal Disease (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Muscle Injury or Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 18.18 | |||||||||
Fecal matter | Skin Rash or Blotch (DID) | Paste (Feces are dissolved in a small amount of water and applied to the affected area) | Topical | 81.81 | |||||||||
Fecal matter | Wound Healing (DID) | Paste (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 54.54 | |||||||||
40 | AVES | Passer domesticus (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Passeridae | LC | House sparrow | Chorui/Gheroa | Meat | Skin Care (DID) | Roasted (Feathers and the digestive tract are removed, then burnt over fire greasing mustard oil, sprinkled with salt, and given to the patient) | Oral | 38.18 | 56.36 | In Assam cooked brain is consumed to treat impotence [25]. In Gujarat, the ash of sparrow excreta is used to treat childhood asthma [167]. Among ethnic groups in the Western Himalayas, soup from female flesh is believed to prevent heart issues, and blood mixed with curd and salt is applied to wounds [95]. In Maharashtra and in Assam, cooked flesh is consumed to treat stammering [26]. In Rajasthan [39] and among the Uttarakhand [66], fecal matter is applied to a baby’s anus to relieve constipation. In, Tamil Nadu, blood is used as eardrops to treat otorrhea and ENT issues [163] |
Fecal matter | Constipation (GIA) | Paste (Feces is dissolved in a small amount of water and applied to the anal region) | Anal | 47.27 | |||||||||
41 | AVES | Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (V) (Stephens, 1826) | Phalacrocoracidae | LC | Indian cormorant | Pankouri/Seral | Meat | Energy Booster (GH) | Cooked (Feathers are plucked; the meat is cut into small pieces, then added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft) | Oral | 40 | 63.63 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Lung-Related Problem (RSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 49.09 | |||||||||
Syrinx | Asthma (RSD) | Paste (The syrinx is rubbed on a stone, then mixed with water to form a paste, which is given to the patient) | Oral | 38.18 | |||||||||
Syrinx | Respiratory Disease (RSD) | Paste (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 29.09 | |||||||||
42 | AVES | Upupa epops (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Upupidae | LC | Common hoopoe | Mohonchura/ | Meat | Gall Bladder Stone (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked, the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with salt, boiled in water until soft, and then given to the patient) | Oral | 38.18 | 45.45 | In Manipur, boiled meat is traditionally used to treat kidney stones, urination problems, and white discharge in women [154]. In Assam, dried meat is used for gallstones [25]. In Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, meat is utilized for managing kidney-related issues [91] |
Meat | Kidney Stone (GUA) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
43 | AVES | Anthus rufulus (V) (Vieillot, 1818) | Motacillidae | LC | Paddy field pipit | Dhani tulika/Chanchir | Meat | Indigestion (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (Feathers are plucked and the meat is sliced into small pieces. The pieces are then boiled in water with added salt until the meat becomes soft. This soup is consumed by the patient) | Oral | 32.72 | 47.27 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | Blood Loss (CSCD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 29.09 | |||||||||
Meat | Skin Care (DID) | Boil (Soup) (The soup is consumed to support skin healing and enhance skin health) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
44 | Mammals | Pteropus giganteus (V) (Temminck, 1825) | Pteropodidae | LC | Indian flying fox | Fol badur/Badra or Barduj | Meat | Asthma (RSD) | Boil (Soup) (After being deskinned, the meat is sliced into small pieces, added with salt, boiled in water until soft, and then given to the patient) | Oral | 49.09 | 65.45 | In Central India, feather ash is used to treat asthma [151]. In Tiruppur, Tamil Nadu, cooked meat is consumed to cure piles [163], while in Theni, Tamil Nadu, cooked meat is used for asthma and bronchitis [54]. The Ao tribe of Nagaland uses rice-soaked and dried urine to treat kidney stones [114]. In the Western Ghats, cooked flesh is eaten for asthma and chest pain [166]. In, Kerala, raw meat is consumed orally for asthma while fat is rubbed topically for bronchitis [53]. In Purulia, West Bengal, cooked flesh is eaten to treat asthma and burns, and feces are used topically as an ointment for skin burns [67]. In Sikkim, meat is boiled without salt and consumed to treat piles, cold, and cough [2] |
Meat | Tuberculosis (RSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 43.63 | |||||||||
Meat | Blood Loss (CSCD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
Skin | Fever (FVR) | Raw (The skin is removed, dried under sunlight, and then applied on forehead) | Topical | 47.27 | |||||||||
45 | Mammals | Viverricula indica (V) (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803) | Viverridae | LC | Small Indian civet | Choto khatash/Ruroh | Meat | Mental Illness (NA) | Boil (Soup) (After removing the skin, the meat is sliced into small pieces and seasoned with salt, lemon juice, and ginger paste. It is boiled in water until soft and then mainly given to patients with psychosis) | Oral | 40 | 43.63 | In Tamil Nadu, it is used to treat acne [54]. In Kerala, its flesh is cooked to address breathing troubles, and soup prepared from it is used for general weakness [155] |
Meat | Body Strength (GH) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 14.54 | |||||||||
46 | Mammals | Rattus rattus (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Muridae | LC | Black rat | Indur/Godo | Meat | Indigestion (GIA) | Roasted (After removing the digestive tract and skin, it is burnt in fire and then consumed with salt) | Oral | 45.45 | 52.72 | In Chhattisgarh, meat is consumed as food, believed to be protein-rich and beneficial for overall health [152]. Among Shoka tribe of Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal, and in Andhra Pradesh, meat is considered a promoter of semen [92, 168]. Among the Niyashi and Galo tribes in Arunachal Pradesh, the whole body of certain animals is burned, powdered, and consumed with rice as a painkiller to alleviate pain after conception, particularly in early pregnancy [55]. In the Tangsa and Wancho tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, rat meat is eaten to treat allergies and body itching, particularly from scabies [27] |
Meat | Immunity Booster (GH) | Roasted (After removing the digestive tract and skin, it is burnt in fire and then consumed with salt) | Oral | 38.18 | |||||||||
47 | Mammals | Vulpes bengalensis (V) (Shaw, 1800) | Canidae | LC | Bengal fox | Khekshiyal/Khekri | Meat | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Cooked (After removing the skin, the meat is cut into small pieces, added with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil, and then cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and given to the patient) | Oral | 40.00 | 41.81 | In Arunachal Pradesh, flesh is consumed to treat tuberculosis [55]. In the Tangsa and Wancho tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, flesh is used for body and joint pains and as an energy booster for weak individuals and pregnant women; dried or cooked gall bladder and bile is used to treat Tuberculosis, liver problem, rheumatism, malaria [27]. In Assam, meat is consumed to treat paralysis [37]. In Darjeeling, West Bengal, flesh is used for gout, arthritis, and chickenpox. Flesh is fermented to make alcohol, and used for body massage to relieve aches, gout, and arthritis [93] |
Meat | Tetany (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
Meat | Indigestion Problem (GIA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 10.90 | |||||||||
Meat | Mental Illness (NA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 16.36 | |||||||||
48 | Mammals | Lepus nigricollis (V) (F. Cuvier, 1823) | Leporidae | LC | Indian hare | Khorgose/Kuloi | Meat | Muscle Strength (SMSD) | Boil (Soup) (After removing the skin, the meat is sliced into small pieces and seasoned with salt, lemon juice, and ginger paste. It is boiled in water until soft and given to the patient) | Oral | 41.81 | 60 | In Kerala, the tribals use flesh soup to treat general weakness [155]. In Rajasthan, the Garsiya people apply a tuft of fur topically to stop bleeding [156]. The Shoka tribe uses liver to treat chickenpox and excreta for ringworm [168]. In Andhra Pradesh, blood is used to treat asthma [92], while in Tamil Nadu, the whole body of certain animals is cooked and consumed to alleviate wheezing and sinusitis. Meat cooked in soup is also used for stomach ache and joint pain [54]. In Gujarat, blood, specifically tail blood, is applied externally to heal swelling, while the ash of the tail mixed with oil is used as a paste to treat burning sensations [167]. In Maharashtra, cooked meat is consumed to prevent miscarriage, and in Uttarakhand, rabbit blood is used to treat asthma [153] |
Meat | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 27.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Skin Disease (DID) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 14.54 | |||||||||
Meat | Cholesterol level balance (CSCD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 54.54 | |||||||||
Meat | Blood Loss (CSCD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 52.72 | |||||||||
49 | Mammals | Sus scrofa cristatus (V) (Wagner, 1839) | Suidae | LC | Indian boar | Suor | Meat | aphrodisiac (GUA) | Cooked (After removing the skin, the meat is cut into small pieces and mixed with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil. The mixture is cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and is consumed to enhance sexual health and vitality in males and support menstrual health and fertility in females.) | Oral | 16.36 | 50.90 | In Uttarakhand, the Bhotiya tribe uses skin ash to treat pneumonia and fat for rheumatism [66]. In Assam, fat oil is used for rheumatism and skin problems [157], while in Goa, it is applied for burns and fractures [94], in West Bengal for joint pain [67], in Tamil Nadu for earaches [54], in Tripura for wounds [159], and by the Karbi tribe in Assam for tumors [149]. The Biate tribe of Assam uses fat oil for hair care [86]. In Uttar Pradesh, bile is used for hypertension, and urine is consumed for neurotic fits [160]. In Sikkim, powdered teeth are used to treat rheumatism and epilepsy [2]. In Rajasthan, flesh is rubbed in affected area for muscular pain [20], while the Shoka tribe of Uttarakhand uses it for strength [168]. In Kerala, raw fat is applied for muscular pain, and cooked kidney is used for earaches [53] |
Meat | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 47.27 | |||||||||
Meat | Immunity Booster (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
Meat | Arthritis (ORT) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
50 | Mammals | Capra aegagrus hircus (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Bovidae | LC | Domestic goat | Chhagol/Merom | Meat | Body Strength (GH) | Cooked (After removing the skin, the meat is cut into small pieces. Cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil are added. The mixture is cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and given to the patient) | Oral | 87.27 | 78.18 | Urine used to treat tuberculosis in Darjeeling [93], Tripura [159], and Rajasthan [20], and anemia in Kerala [53]. Milk consumed in snake bites in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh [91], and eye infections and measles in Darjeeling, West Bengal [93]. Meat used for digestion problem and rhinitis in Andhra Pradesh [92]. Boiled bones for muscle cramps in Assam [157], and leg bone soup for weakness. Liver used to treat night blindness in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh [92]. Bladder for dysentery and bone marrow for joint dislocations in Manipur [154]. Excreta used to treat cuts, burns, and umbilical cord detachment in Arunachal Pradesh [27]. Dung mixed with urine and used for chronic wounds in Manipur [154] |
Milk | Clear Vision (EA) | Heated (Raw milk collected from the udder of females is heated in a bowl and then consumed) | Oral | 50.90 | |||||||||
Milk | Nausea (GIA) | Heated (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 49.09 | |||||||||
Milk | Headache (NA) | Heated (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
51 | Mammals | Ovis aries (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Bovidae | LC | Sheep | Vera/Vera or Medi | Meat | General Weakness (GH) | Cooked (After removing the skin, the meat is cut into small pieces. Cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil are added. The mixture is cooked in water until the meat becomes soft and then consumed) | Oral | 81.81 | 92.72 | In Arunachal, meat treats skin diseases and fat is used for rheumatism [91]. In Darjeeling and Sikkim, sheep ghee heals scars [2, 93]. In Ladakh, meat treats cough [169]. In Tamil Nadu, fat is used for muscular pain. Sheep milk treats sterility, tallow heals cracked feet, meat is applied for swellings, and fat is consumed for body strength [54] |
Testis | Malnutrition (GH) | Boil (The intact testis is thoroughly cleaned and boiled in water with a small amount of salt and cumin powder. It is consumed as a nutritional supplement to address malnutrition) | Oral | 54.54 | |||||||||
Testis | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Boil (The intact testis is thoroughly cleaned, then boiled in water with a small amount of salt and cumin powder. Once prepared, it is consumed to enhance sexual libido and support reproductive health in males) | Oral | 20.0 | |||||||||
Testis | Indigestion (GH) | Boil (The intact testis is cleaned thoroughly, then boiled in water with a small amount of salt and cumin powder. It is consumed to aid digestion and improve gastrointestinal health) | Oral | 12.72 | |||||||||
Milk | Glossitis or Stomatitis (GH) | Heated (Fresh raw milk collected from the udder of female animals is thoroughly heated in a bowl, allowed to cool slightly, and then consumed to alleviate symptoms of glossitis and stomatitis) | Oral | 94.54 | |||||||||
Cream | Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Extraction (Raw milk is heated and allowed to cool, forming a thick layer on the surface. This layer is separated, rubbed on a stone, and heated in a pan to extract the cream, which is then applied to the affected muscles) | Topical | 67.27 | |||||||||
Cream | Burning (DID) | Extraction (The cream is extracted by heating raw milk, allowing it to cool. It is then applied topically to soothe burning sensations on the skin) | Topical | 36.36 | |||||||||
Cream | Joint Pain (ORT) | Extraction (After separating the cream, it is heated and applied to joints to alleviate pain) | Topical | 23.63 | |||||||||
52 | Mammals | Bos indicus (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Bovidae | LC | Cow | Goru or Gai/Dangri | Meat | Body strength or Malnutrition (GH) | Cooked (After removing the skin, the meat is cut into small pieces. Cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil are added. The mixture is cooked in water until the meat becomes soft) | Oral | 9.09 | 87.27 | In Uttarakhand, the Bhotiya tribe uses urine for eye diseases, milk with droppings for muscle pain, and curd for fever, weakness, and constipation [66]. In Assam, milk treats jaundice [150] and gastritis, urine is applied for skin problems, and curd is used for skin cancer [157]. In Darjeeling, flesh and tail soup aid TB recovery, and milk supplements protein [93]. In Goa, milk treats mouth infections, and dung soothes burns [94]. In Odisha, milk treats chronic dysentery [23]. In Sikkim, urine addresses gall bladder issues, diabetes, colds, and coughs [2]. In Tamil Nadu, milk and buttermilk are consumed for body cooling and ulcers, butter is used for eye infections, liver increases breast milk, and fat treats infected skin and foot corns [163] |
Meat | Tuberculosis (RSD) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 9.09 | |||||||||
Milk | Malnutrition (GH) | Heated raw milk collected from the udder of female animals is heated in a bowl and then consumed | Oral | 80.0 | |||||||||
Milk | Cardiac Health (CSCD) | Heated (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 69.09 | |||||||||
Milk | Muscle Weakness/or Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Heated (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 14.54 | |||||||||
Ghee | Body strength or Immunity booster (GH) | Extraction (Raw milk is heated, and upon cooling, a thick layer of cream forms on the surface. This cream is separated, rubbed on a stone to extract butter, and then heated in a pan to produce ghee and consumed to enhance physical strength and boost immunity) | Oral | 36.36 | |||||||||
Ghee | Muscle Weakness or Muscle Pain (SMSD) | Extraction (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 23.63 | |||||||||
Ghee | Joint Pain (ORT) | Extraction (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 23.63 | |||||||||
Urine | Viral Fever (FVR) | Raw (During urination, urine is collected in a container and inhaled to treat viral fever) | Inhalation | 47.27 | |||||||||
53 | Mammals | Bubalus bubalis (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Bovidae | LC | Buffalo | Mosh/Kada | Meat | Aphrodisiac (GUA) | Cooked (The meat is skinned, cut into small pieces, and then cooked with cumin powder, garlic-ginger paste, onion, and mustard oil in water until tender and consumed to enhance libido, sexual health, and vitality in males.) | Oral | 21.81 | 21.81 | In Uttarakhand, the Bhotiya tribe uses fat for weakness [66]. In Assam, the Karbi tribe uses buffalo horn ash for menstrual pain and body pain [149]. In Kerala, ghee treats snake bites, milk is for jaundice and ascites, and dung juice for skin eruptions [53]. In Odisha, buffalo horn ash relieves premenstrual pain [23]. In Tripura, meat is a sex stimulant [159]. In Maharashtra, curd with dung cures eczema [153]. In Nagaland, the Ao tribe applies fat for body pain, sprains, and rheumatism [114] |
Meat | Body Strength (GH) | Cooked (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 18.18 | |||||||||
54 | Mammals | Funambulus palmarum (V) (Linnaeus, 1766) | Sciuridae | LC | Indian palm squirrel | Kathbirali/Turh | Meat | Cough (RSD) | Boil (Soup) (After removing the skin, the meat is sliced into small pieces. Salt, cumin powder, and mustard oil are added, and then it is boiled in water until soft before being given to the patient) | Oral | 23.63 | 29.09 | No previous records found in India (to the best of our knowledge) |
Meat | FVR (Fever) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 20.0 | |||||||||
55 | Mammals | Hystrix indica (V) (Kerr, 1792) | Hystricidae | LC | Indian crested porcupine | Sojaru/Jhink | Meat | Stomach Irritation (GIA) | Boil (Soup) (After removing the skin, the meat is sliced into small pieces. Salt, cumin powder, and mustard oil are added, and then it is boiled in water until soft before being given to the patient) | Oral | 10.90 | 16.36 | In Uttarakhand, fat treats rheumatism and body pain; dried stomach and intestine are used for stomach disorders [66]. In Arunachal Pradesh, Tangsa and Wancho tribes use dried stomach for malaria, gallbladder stones, and gastritis [27]. In Assam, flesh treats pneumonia [157]; dried alimentary canal is used for premenstrual pain [37] |
Meat | Rheumatism (SMSD) | Boil (Soup) (Same recipe as above) | Oral | 16.36 | |||||||||
56 | Mammals | Herpestes edwardsii (V) (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1818) | Herpestidae | LC | Indian grey mongoose | Beji/Chemeng | Meat | Viral or Bacterial Disease (ID) | Boil (Soup) (After removing the skin, the meat is sliced into small pieces. Salt, cumin powder, and mustard oil are added, and then it is boiled in water until soft before being given to the patient) | Oral | 21.81 | 21.81 | In Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, meat is utilized for the treatment of measles, and hypersensitivity to pork [91]. Among the Ao tribe in Nagaland, cooked penile tissue is consumed for male impotence. In Assam, meat is consumed to address anemia and is believed to have anticancer properties [37]. In Kerala, animal fat is applied in the management of rheumatic conditions [53]. In Odisha, meat is used for the treatment of asthma and rabies [23]. In Sikkim, boiled meat is utilized as a remedy for tuberculosis and fever. In Tamil Nadu, meat is used to treat snake envenomation [2] |
57 | Mammals | Homo sapiens sapiens (V) (Linnaeus, 1758) | Hominidae | LC | Human | Manush/Horo or Monami | Urine | Wound Healing (DID) | Raw (Raw urine is collected during urination in a container or pot and used topically for wound healing) | Topical | 41.81 | 96.36 | In Arunachal Pradesh, the Tangsa and Wancho tribes use urine for toothache, cuts, burns, and conjunctivitis [27], while the Nyishi tribe treats pathogenic eye infections [170]. In Assam, urine serves as an antiseptic for wounds [37], and the Karbi tribe uses fresh urine for skin diseases [149]. In Darjeeling, breast milk is applied for eye infections [93]. In Goa, urine is also used for eye infections [94]. In Tamil Nadu, saliva is applied for acne, and urine is used for rashes [54] |
Milk | Eye Irritation (EA) | Raw (Breast milk is harvested from a lactating mother and applied drop by drop to the eye of a child until relief of symptoms) | Topical | 94.54 | |||||||||
Milk | Conjunctivitis (EA) | Raw (Same recipe as above) | Topical | 21.81 |