Healing from the wild: an ethnozoological exploration of animal-based medicine in Jhargram, West Bengal, India

Abstract

Background

India possesses immense faunal, floral, and cultural diversity that supports numerous ethnic communities relying on traditional medicine for primary healthcare. The Jhargram district, an underprivileged area in West Bengal, India, and part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, is rich in biodiversity. This area is home to various ethnic communities that practice their own ethnobiological medicine. Despite this, there is a lack of documented use of animal-based traditional medicine in this region. This study aims to explore and document the use of animal parts/products for medicinal purposes among indigenous communities in Jhargram. A summary of the study is presented in the Graphical Abstract.

Method

The study was conducted in Jhargram district, West Bengal, India, from March 2023 to January 2024. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to conduct face-to-face interviews with 55 selected individuals (29 males and 26 females) to document the medicinal uses of animals in the traditional healthcare system. The questionnaire included queries about the local names of animals, modes of preparation, applications, and other ethnozoological details. The photographs were also recorded using a camera. The collected data were analyzed using a Microsoft Excel 2019; quantitative ethnobiological indices such as the informant consensus factor (ICF) and the degree of fidelity (FL) were calculated to assess the reliability and significance of the information provided by the respondents. Additionally, use value (UV), Jaccard index (JI), and frequency of citation (FC) were also calculated.

Result

This study recorded 57 species from 57 distinct genera across 47 families, used by ethnic communities in Jhargram addressing a wide range of ailments categorized into 14 groups. Birds accounted for the highest proportion (33%) of utilized species. Apis cerana exhibited the highest use value (UV = 5.69). Apis cerana and Homo sapiens sapiens recorded the highest fidelity levels (FL = 94.54%), indicating their critical roles in treating respiratory ailments and wound healing, respectively. Conversely, Dinopium benghalense had the lowest FL (FL = 3.63%), reported for kidney stone treatment. Four species, including Hydrophilus sp., demonstrated the lowest use value (UV = 1.00), suggesting their specialized or rare application in the community's ethnomedicinal practices. In terms of informant consensus, infectious diseases recorded the highest informant consensus factor (ICF = 1.00), followed closely by eye ailments (ICF = 0.99). Common preparation methods included cooking, boiling, roasting, and frying, with oral administration being the most frequently used method, followed by topical, inhalation and anal applications.

Conclusion

This study documents 57 species, including several novel species and their therapeutic uses, within the indigenous communities of Jhargram. It emphasizes the continued relevance of animal-based traditional medicine in addressing a broad spectrum of health issues. The observed variability in fidelity level and use value across species highlights the dynamic role of these resources in local healthcare systems. The discovery of novel species and previously undocumented uses significantly contributes to the expansion of ethnobiological knowledge. As traditional medicine remains a primary healthcare resource in areas with limited access to modern medical facilities, it is crucial to prioritize the documentation, conservation, and sustainable use of these species. This study provides a valuable framework for integrating traditional knowledge into contemporary healthcare and biodiversity conservation strategies. Preserving and safeguarding this knowledge is essential not only for maintaining cultural heritage but also for exploring potential biomedical applications that could benefit modern healthcare systems.

Graphical abstract

Background

Since prehistoric times, human beings, particularly ethnic communities, have been acquainted with the use of wild faunal and floral resources for diverse purposes [1]. This interrelationship persists even today as socioethnic customs manifested through the realms of traditional medicine and folk culture [2]. Indigenous people possess a vast array of natural remedies employing traditional medicine derived from wild plants and animals, forming a diverse pharmacopeia that blends scientific and artistic knowledge [3]. Traditional medicine encompasses a comprehensive knowledge base, skills, and practices rooted in the theoretical frameworks, cultural beliefs, and experiences indigenous to various cultures, and it is explicable or not, used to prevent, diagnose, improve, or treat physical and mental ailments [4, 5]. The knowledge of indigenous people about traditional medicine has significant implications for human and livestock well-being. This knowledge is mainly based on local resources and expertise, offering a vital alternative in low-income countries where access to pharmaceuticals is limited and expensive. Traditional medicine serves as a driving force in the discovery of modern therapies.

Despite its potential significance, the field of zootherapeutic practices, a key component of traditional medicine, has frequently been eclipsed by the prevailing focus on ethnobotanical studies and surveys. The prevailing focus has largely centered on the documentation of medicinal plants, leaving the exploration of zootherapeutic practices relatively underexplored [6, 7]. However, many societies are rapidly losing their ethnopharmacological knowledge. Therefore, the documentation of this knowledge before it is lost becomes increasingly important to preserve and harness its invaluable potential [8].

Animals and their derived products play crucial roles in numerous traditional therapies [8, 9], and their utilization can be traced back to prehistoric eras. Both wild and domesticated animals, along with their byproducts such as hooves, skins, bones, feathers, and tusks, constitute essential components in the formulation of remedial, protective, and prophylactic pharmaceuticals [10, 11]. According to the World Health Organization, traditional medicines meet the primary medical needs of 80% of the rural population in the developing world.

Traditional Chinese medicine encompasses nearly or more than 1500 animal species. Similarly, within Ayurvedic medicine, approximately 20% incorporates animals and their byproducts, encompassing a minimum 500 invertebrate species employed for the treatment of diverse health issues [1, 12]. Presently, it is estimated that 8.7% of the crucial compounds utilized in contemporary medicine are sourced from animals or derived from them [13]. Traditional medicine is increasingly used for primary healthcare in developing countries like India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and its utilization is also growing in developed nations [12].

Indigenous communities across India possess a wealth of knowledge regarding the medicinal properties of animals, serving as a critical resource for primary healthcare in rural areas [14]. However, this knowledge is increasingly at risk due to socioeconomic and cultural shifts, including urbanization, migration, and declining reliance on traditional medicine, as reported in studies across India [15,16,17,18]. Field surveys in Jhargram, West Bengal, revealed a similar trend, with younger generations showing diminished interest in traditional practices. Despite the limited scope of research on the therapeutic uses of animals in India, ancient texts such as Ayurveda and Charaka Samhita provide valuable insights into the importance of ethnozoology, mentioning nearly 380 types of animal substances [2, 19]. The Ayurvedic system describes a diverse array of animals, including 24 insects, 16 reptiles, 21 fishes, 41 birds, and 41 mammals. Various ethnic and tribal groups in India continue to use animals and their products for healing human ailments. Notably, the Hindu religion has historically utilized five products from cows—milk, urine, dung, curd, and ghee—for purification purposes [20, 21].

Several studies have elucidated the traditional zootherapeutic practices in distinct regions of India, including Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan [20, 22,23,24,25,26,27]. These ethnozoological studies underscore the crucial importance of research in this domain within the Indian context.

West Bengal, a strategically important state of Eastern India, is enriched with a vast heritage of biodiversity and the traditional use of plants and animal medicines practiced by several tribal groups. According to the 2011 Census of India [28], West Bengal harbors approximately 5.08% tribal population of the country. As many as 40 tribal groups are found in the state in which a large number of tribal populations, such as Santals, Bhumijs, Lodhas, Sabars, Kurmis, Mahalis, and Koras, are concentrated in the western part of West Bengal, particularly in the Jhargram district [29, 30].

Jhargram, an eastern Indian plateau extension within West Bengal, harbors significant biodiversity alongside a rich tribal heritage. This region, with 30% tribal inhabitants, boasts a unique combination of ethnic diversity, forest resources, and wildlife. Tribal communities in Jhargram have a long-standing tradition of utilizing forest resources for various purposes, including ethnomedicine. They collect specific plants and animals for food, traditional practices, and treatment of ailments using animal-based medicine. Despite the well-documented plant-based traditional medicine practices in Jhargram, systematic studies on zootherapeutic medicine in this region remain scarce [31, 32].

Knowledge about the use of animals in traditional medicine is typically transmitted orally among different ethnic communities and passed down from generation to generation. However, this knowledge often faces the risk of extinction with the death of the elderly knowledgeable person. Presently, the traditional knowledge system in this region is rapidly eroding accelerated by the urbanization of this area, particularly following the establishment of Jhargram as a district in 2017. Furthermore, the younger generation also hesitates to fully embrace and preserve the invaluable wealth of ethnic and traditional knowledge, primarily being influenced by the profound effects of urbanization. Therefore, it is important to study and record the ethnozoological information regarding the therapeutic use of various animals or their parts in traditional medicine among different ethnic communities to prevent the complete loss of these traditional cultures.

The primary objective of this study is to systematically document and explore the ethnozoological knowledge and practices of indigenous communities in the Jhargram region of West Bengal, India, with a focus on animal-based traditional medicines. This research aims to examine the specific species of animals used, the particular parts and derivatives employed, the ailments treated, and the preparation and administration methods, with an emphasis on preserving this invaluable knowledge, which is at risk of being lost due to rapid urbanization and cultural shifts. Furthermore, this study seeks to underscore the significance of zootherapeutic practices within traditional medicine systems, which have historically been overshadowed by the emphasis on ethnobotany. By documenting these practices, the research aims to contribute to both the conservation of biodiversity and the recognition of species that play critical roles in local healthcare systems. In addition to documenting local practices, this study compares the zootherapeutic knowledge of Jhargram with that from other parts of India, identifying unique aspects and commonalities in animal-based medicinal traditions. To ensure the reliability of the data, quantitative ethnobiological indices such as the ICF, FL, UV, FC, and Jaccard index were employed, offering a rigorous framework for assessing the significance and consistency of the information gathered. This work aims to preserve a crucial aspect of indigenous knowledge, inform conservation strategies, and potentially inspire novel biomedical applications.

We believe that the present systematic study not only documents and signifies the ethnozoological uses of animal medicine across different ethnic groups of this region but also serves to protect this valuable knowledge before it is completely eroded from this region due to rapid urbanization and infusion of urban culture into the young generation of this ethnic communities. It is also anticipated that the present documentation will be fundamental to protect traditional knowledge and the conservation and sustainable use of the rich biodiversity of “Junglemahal” for future generations.

Methodology

Study area location, climate and ethnobiological background of people

The study area exhibits the geographical characteristics along with its physical, geo-environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural context. The term ‘Jhar’ originates from the Austric word ‘Jhanti’, meaning ‘small bushes’. Alternatively, the term 'Jhargram' may be derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Jhat’, meaning ‘bunch of branches’. The name reflects the existence of the dense forests in this area [30]. For this reason, the district with the surrounding area is known as ‘Junglemahal’—the land of forests.

The Jhargram district (Fig. 1) of West Bengal, India, spans between 21°56′00.2"N and 22°42′05.3"N latitude and 86°44′03.6"E to 87°06′02.4"E longitude. The district and its adjoining region are full of wildlife and wilderness [33, 34]. The region lies between the Kangsabati river in the north and the Subarnarekha in the south; this area is a part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, which gradually slopes down toward the east into the lower Gangetic plain and experiences a southwest monsoon climatic zone [35]. The Jhargram district comprises a total size of 3037.64 sq km, among which, nearly 594.98 sq km are covered with forest [30]. The climate is hot and humid tropical monsoon with an average annual rainfall of 1550 mm. The coolest month has a mean minimum temperature of 10 °C, and the warmest month has a mean maximum temperature of 42 °C [34]. This area is characterized by a west-to-east gradient in soil types. In the western portion, the soil is infertile red lateritic soil, while the eastern part is dominated by thin alluvium. Tropical dry deciduous mixed forest is the dominant natural vegetation, with sal (Shorea robusta) as the key species [36]. Tropical dry deciduous mixed forest is the dominant natural vegetation, with sal (Shorea robusta) as the key species [36]. This vegetation creates a suitable habitat for diverse animal biodiversity because of its complex structure and resource availability, supporting various ecological niches and promotes species richness.

Fig. 1

A Map showing the location of West Bengal in India and highlighting the Jhargram district within the state. B Detailed map of Jhargram district indicating study sites (marked with red circles)

Jhargram district with a population of approximately 1.14 million includes a significant proportion of tribal or ethnic communities, accounting for about 29.37% of the total population (Census 2011) [28]. This district accommodates a higher percentage of primitive tribes, such as the Santals, Bhumijs, Lodhas, Sabars, and Kurmis, compared to any other district in West Bengal [29, 30]. All the blocks of this district are under the Integrated Tribal Development Program (ITDP) of the central government of India. People, especially aboriginals, of this region, utilize natural resources [34]. Because of its tropical location, infertile soil, limited rainfall, and uneven terrain, agricultural productivity in this part of West Bengal is notably lower compared to the rest of the state. Regarding primary healthcare, tribal communities predominantly rely on traditional folk medicine practiced by Traditional Healers (THs). Due to the remote villages' distance from conventional medical facilities and the cost-effectiveness, safety, and availability of traditional medicine, it continues to endure and remains one of the most popular treatment option among the ethnic groups in the rural areas of the district.

Informant selection and data collection

The dataset was collected through field surveys conducted in the Jhargram district from March 2023 to January 2024. Informants were purposively selected from five villages, with one village chosen from each of the district's eight blocks (Fig. 1, Table 1), based on their recognized knowledge of traditional animal-based medicinal practices.

Table 1 Summary of study sites in Jhargram district

To document the medicinal uses of animals in the traditional healthcare system, a multifaceted approach was employed. This included face-to-face interviews, informal meetings, and open and group discussions, facilitated using semi-structured questionnaire (Supplementary File: QUESTIONNAIRE FINAL. docx) [2, 20, 37]. A total of 55 individuals (29 males and 26 females) were purposefully selected for this study to ensure the inclusion of knowledgeable informants capable of providing reliable and detailed ethnomedicinal data. The interviews were conducted in the local languages of the informants, primarily Bengali or Santali, which are widely spoken in the study area. The sampling approach was guided by the need to ensure the inclusion of knowledgeable individuals who could provide reliable and detailed ethnomedicinal data. The selection process was further constrained by logistical and resource limitations inherent to remote fieldwork in ethnobiological studies. This is a standard approach widely employed in previous ethnobiological studies, ensuring the collection of comprehensive and relevant information [20, 38] (Fig. 2). They were queried regarding the local names of animals and the specific parts utilized for therapeutic purposes, as well as the ailments treated, methods of preparation, modes of administration, and other relevant details [20, 39, 40]. The animals were identified based on their presence within the study area, available digital records, and descriptive characteristics provided by respondents, following established literature. While most species were identified at the species level, some taxa were identified only at the genus level due to limitations in distinguishing certain species based on local knowledge and available references [41, 42].

Fig. 2

a–d Representative photographs from the field survey illustrating group discussions with informants, Jhargram District. e–f Photographs showing the local landscape and residential structures in the area

Ethical considerations

Authorization to carry out this study was secured from the administrative authority of the college. The participants were thoroughly briefed on the aims and scope of the research prior to providing their verbal consent. Their involvement was entirely voluntary, with the freedom to withdraw from the interviews at any point without any consequences. The purpose of the research—exploring and documenting the medicinal significance of animal species in the study area—was clearly explained to the contributors. It was emphasized that the study was conducted solely for academic purposes and not intended for any commercial use. After fully understanding and accepting these terms, participants voluntarily shared their knowledge about the medicinal uses of the animal species in their region. A sample handwritten consent note, voluntarily provided by a participant, is included as supplementary file (supplementary file: ADDITIONAL FILE 2.jpg).

Data analysis

Fidelity level

Fidelity level (FL) is calculated to determine the most commonly used species for treating certain ailments; a higher FL value indicates that most of the respondents used the same animal species for treating a certain ailment [2, 43]. The following formula is used to calculate FL [44].

$${\text{FL}}\left( \% \right) = N_{P} /N \times 100$$

Here, N_P represents the number of informants who mentioned using a specific animal species to treat a particular ailment, and N is the total number of informants who utilized animals for medicinal purposes to treat any ailment.

Frequency of citation

The frequency of citation (FC) represents the percentage of local informants who acknowledged the use of specific animal species for ethnomedicinal purposes. It was calculated using the formula [45, 46]:

$${\text{FC}} = (n/N) \times 100$$

where n is the number of mentions of a particular species, and N is the total number of mentions for all species. Animal species with higher FC values reflect their broader recognition and extensive utilization within the local community. A higher FC value indicates greater cultural and medicinal significance attributed to those species by the informants.

Use value

The use value (UV) represents the significance of a specific animal species in traditional medicinal practices. It is determined using the formula [46, 47]:

$${\text{UV}} = \Sigma {\text{Uvi}}/{\text{Ni}}$$

where Uvi denotes the total number of uses reported by respondents for a particular species, and Ni refers to the total number of respondents who mentioned that species. A higher UV indicates that the species holds considerable importance within the community, as it was referenced by a larger proportion of participants during the study.

Informant consensus factor

To evaluate the ethnopharmacological significance of documented practices and assess the level of agreement among informants, we employed the informant consensus factor (ICF) [48, 49]. The ICF is a quantitative measure ranging from 0.00 to 1.00. Higher ICF values indicate a greater consensus among informants regarding the use of a specific plant or animal species for treating a particular ailment. Conversely, low or near-zero ICF values suggest disagreement among informants or a conservative approach toward the utilization of certain species. The ICF was calculated as follows [46]

$${\text{ICF}} = n_{ur} - n_{t} /n_{ur} - 1$$

where $n_{ur }$ is the number of citations and $n_{t}$ is the number of species used.

Jaccard index (JI)

The Jaccard index (JI) was employed to compare the animal species used in traditional medicine in the Jhargram region with those documented in other ethnozoological studies conducted across various regions and indigenous communities. This index measures the similarity between two sets of data, specifically the shared species utilized in zootherapeutic practices.

The JI was calculated using the formula provided by González-Tejero et al. [50], a method that was recently applied in similar studies [51, 52] where

$${\text{JI}} = \frac{C \times 100}{{A + B - C}}$$

A represents the number of species documented in the study area (Area a), B represents the number of species documented in the comparison area (Area b), and C denotes the number of species common to both areas (a and b).

The Jaccard index value ranges from 0 to 100, with a higher value indicating a greater degree of similarity between the two areas or communities in terms of species used in traditional medicine.

Results and discussions

Sociodemographic characteristics of informants

The study encompassed 55 participants including 29 males (52.7%) and 26 females (47.3%). The majority of respondents were aged 40–60 years (N = 30, 54.5%) or over 60 (N = 10, 18.2%), indicating a predominantly older demographic profile that plays a key role in preserving traditional knowledge systems (Table 2). The majority of participants had basic literacy and can read and write (N = 36, 65.5%), followed by 20%(N = 11) with no formal education and only 14.5% (N = 8) achieving secondary education or higher (Table 2). Our study revealed that a significant portion of participants within the community possessed basic literacy, emphasizing the indispensable role of foundational education in the preservation and effective application of ethnobiological knowledge. Our result converges with previous studies that have reported a higher proportion of male respondents possessing ethnobiological knowledge, along with a tendency for older individuals to serve as key knowledge holders [37, 46, 53,54,55,56,57,58]. This observation is also consistent with prior research, which has recognized basic education as a cornerstone for sustaining traditional knowledge systems [2, 59,60,61].

Table 2 Demographic profile of informants included in the survey (N = 55)

Ethnic composition revealed significant diversity, with Santals forming the majority (50.9%), followed by Lodha (20%), Munda (14.5%), Kurmi (9.1%), and Pashtun (5.5%). Religious affiliations reflected this diversity, with Sarnaism as the predominant faith among tribal groups, followed by Hinduism and Islam. As the largest primitive tribe in West Bengal and Jhargram, the Santals have preserved a profound connection to their cultural heritage which is deeply intertwined with Sarnaism and their reverence for mother nature [62, 63]. They demonstrate extensive knowledge of nature and biodiversity, emphasizing sustainable living and conservation practices [64, 65]. This is consistent with previous studies on other indigenous groups in India, who are recognized for their close relationship with the natural world, deep respect for ecological systems, and extensive traditional knowledge of biodiversity [23, 54, 66, 67].

The respondents in this study primarily engage in livelihoods such as agriculture, forest gathering, and animal-related activities, with zootherapy being practiced on a part-time basis. Previous research also highlights that the use of animal resources in ethnomedicine is commonly observed among economically disadvantaged communities with limited access to resources [2, 68]. In certain cases, zootherapeutic practices have also provided supplementary income, where such practices contribute to sustaining their way of life [20].

Ethnozoological analysis

A total of 57 animal species, belonging to 57 distinct genera, encompassing 11 classes, across 47 families, were documented for their traditional medicinal uses by indigenous communities in Jhargram district. These species are employed to treat various human ailments through different methods (details provided in Table 3). The documented species diversity included both vertebrates (44 species, 77%) and invertebrates (13 species, 23%). Birds comprised the most abundant taxonomic group (33%, N = 19), followed by mammals (25%, N = 14), reptiles (12%, N = 7), insects (10%, N = 6), bony fish (Actinopterygii, 7%, N = 4), and crustaceans (3%, N = 2). Amphibians, bivalves, gastropods, arachnids, and clitellates were each represented by a single species (N = 1), contributing 2% each (Fig. 3) to the total documented species (representative photographs of species are provided in Fig. 4).

Table 3 Knowledge of animal resource use among ethnic communities in the study area of Jhargram district

Fig. 3

Percentage distribution of animal categories and taxonomic classes traditionally utilized by indigenous communities in the study area. The pie chart illustrates the proportion of different animal species used, categorized by their taxonomic classification

Fig. 4

Ethnozoologically important animals photographed a–o during the study period. a Heterometrus sp. b Oecophylla smaragdina. c Mytilus edulis. d Calotes versicolor. e Psammophilus dorsalis. f Periplaneta americana. g Halcyon smyrnensis. h Ardeola grayii. i Spilopelia chinensis. j Lissemys punctata. k Hoplobatrachus tigerinus. l Dinopium benghalense. m Upupa epops. n Columba livia. o Pteropus giganteus

In our study, birds were the most frequently used animals for therapeutic purposes; this finding is concordant with the other research conducted in the Indian subcontinent [8]. This may be attributed to the diversity and easy availability of birds within the study area, as we have already shown in our recent study [69, 70]. Mammals occupy the second highest demand for ethnozoological practices followed by reptiles and insects. However, some reports from India suggest that mammals are the most commonly used animals in ethnomedicine [2, 53, 54]

It is important to highlight that, consistent with our findings, mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects have been repeatedly documented as primary animal groups used in zootherapeutic practices across various regions of India [20, 24, 37, 39, 54] and world [46, 58, 71, 72]. This finding emphasizes the importance of local faunal diversity in providing resources for traditional medicine, as suggested by Alves and Rosa (2007), who observed that the composition, accessibility, and availability of fauna directly shape the selection of zootherapeutic resources within a specific region [73].

Ailment categories

Based on the information gathered from the study area, all the reported ailments were systematically categorized into 14 distinct categories (Table 4), which are: Dermatological Infection/Diseases (DID), Skeleto-Muscular System Disorders (SMSD), Respiratory System Diseases (RSD), Fever (FVR), Gastro-Intestinal Ailments (GIA), Circulatory System/Cardiovascular Diseases (CSCD), General Health (GH), Orthopedic Issues (ORT), Genito-Urinary Ailments (GUA), Hair Care (HC), Eye Ailments (EA), Ear, Nose, Throat Problems (ENT), Neurological Ailments (NA), and Infectious Diseases (ID).

Table 4 Category of ailments and their informant consensus factor (ICF) in the study area of Jhargram district

Animal parts and products used as traditional medicine in Jhargram and other regions of India

Our study documented the use of 13 different animal body parts or products employed in traditional zootherapeutic practices within the studied communities. Meat emerged as the most commonly utilized component (58.93%), followed by the whole body (11.59%). Honey accounted for 4.83%, milk for 4.35%, and excreta (including urine and fecal matter) contributed 2.89% of reported uses. Bone (1.45%), tail (1.93%), subcutaneous fat (0.97%), skin (0.97%), egg (0.97%), blood (0.97%), and head (0.48%) were also documented. Additionally, some informants mentioned the use of less common materials (9.66%), like wax, shell, shell water, testis, ghee, feathers, and syrinx for medicinal purposes (Fig. 5), were together included under the category of “Others”. This finding is consistent with earlier studies conducted among various ethnic communities in India and across the globe [2, 49, 53, 58, 74]. The medicinal properties of preparations derived from animal parts or products have been validated through both in vivo and in vitro experiments. Examples include studies on whole animals [75, 76], animal oils [77,78,79,80], urine [81,82,83], and milk [84, 85].

Fig. 5

Percentage distribution of specific animal parts and products used in zootherapy in Jhargram

Comparative analysis of animal parts and products used as traditional medicine in jhargram and other regions of India

A comparative analysis reveals both shared practices and novel applications, showcasing the rich diversity of traditional knowledge in Jhargram. A detailed summary of these comparisons is provided in Table 3.

Several animal parts and derivatives, such as honey, milk, fat, bones, shells, and meat, are commonly utilized across India for treating various ailments. For instance, honey bees' (Apis cerana) honey is widely recognized for its antimicrobial, wound healing, and immunity-boosting properties, with similar uses documented in other states of India, Uttarakhand, Assam, and Kerala [37, 53, 66, 86] (Table 3). However, in Jhargram, application of honey extends further to cardiac health, representing an innovative therapeutic use that underscores the community’s adaptive knowledge. Similarly, bones and shells are commonly employed for fracture healing and calcium supplementation in Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu [54, 87]. In Jhargram, powdered Lissemys punctata shell is applied topically to strengthen fontanelle of newborns, a culturally specific practice that has not been reported elsewhere in India (Table 3).

Fat, particularly from species like Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, is widely used across India for treating joint pain and inflammation [66, 88, 89], while the use of its meat for managing eczema demonstrates a unique regional adaptation. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, fat from species like Varanus bengalensis and Lepus nigricollis is applied topically to manage rheumatism and burns [53, 54]. The practices in Jhargram are consistent with these traditional uses, yet they exhibit innovation through the creation of combined formulations. For instance, scorpion (Heterometrus sp.) tail oil is prepared by mixing scorpion derivatives with Bengal monitor fat, creating a potent remedy for joint pain and skin disorders.

Moreover, the meat of Lepus nigricollis in Jhargram is used for muscle recovery, blood loss, cholesterol balance, and as an aphrodisiac, broadening its utility compared to its primarily topical applications in Rajasthan [20].

The use of whole insect, water scavenger beetle (Hydrophilus sp.) for tetany, and raw skin of fish, Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) for treating burn, stood entirely novel practices in our study, though insects were documented for other medicinal purposes in different states of India [2, 18, 27, 88, 90, 91] (Table 3). Excreta, including fecal matter and urine, are known for their medicinal roles in other Indian regions. However, in Jhargram, the fecal matter of Periplaneta americana is transformed into a paste and consumed to treat gastrointestinal issues—a unconventional approach. Moreover, fecal matter of Passer domesticus is dissolved in water and applied anally for treating infant constipation (Table 3).

Milk from domesticated mammals like Bos indicus, Capra aegagrus hircus, and Ovis aries is a cornerstone of traditional health practices in India. In Kerala, Assam, and Uttarakhand, cow and goat milk are consumed for enhancing physical strength and treating malnutrition [37, 53, 66]. Similarly, in Jhargram, cow milk is used to address cardiac health and muscle pain, highlighting an expansion of its therapeutic repertoire. Goat milk, widely used in Andhra Pradesh for rhinitis and in Tamil Nadu for eye infections [54, 92], is employed in Jhargram for treating nausea, headache, and eye disease. Sheep milk is particularly noteworthy in Jhargram for its role in treating glossitis and stomatitis, unique applications not reported elsewhere in India.

Among the lesser-described applications observed in Jhargram, human-derived products such as urine and breast milk exhibit distinctive and unconventional uses that enrich the ethnomedical landscape. For example, human urine, widely recognized for its antiseptic and wound healing properties in regions like Assam, Tamil Nadu, and Arunachal Pradesh [27, 37, 54], is applied topically in Jhargram to treat infected wounds, reflecting continuity with broader practices while emphasizing its local utility for severe infections (Table 3). Similarly, breast milk, employed traditionally for eye infections in Darjeeling and Goa [93, 94], finds a comparable use in Jhargram, where it is applied to alleviate eye irritation and conjunctivitis in children.

The study found that traditional remedies lacked standardization in dosage and duration, with quantities and frequency varying based on experience until recovery. The same animal species and parts were used in different doses for similar conditions. One of the primary challenges associated with traditional medicine is the lack of standardization and quality control, as highlighted in previous studies [46]

Modes of preparation of animal parts or products for zootherapeutic uses

This study identified 12 distinct modes of preparation employed in traditional animal medicine practices for therapeutic purposes (Fig. 6). Cooking emerged as the most common method, accounting for 31.4% of the total documented preparations, followed by soup preparation (19.32%), roasting (14.1%), and raw use of animals (11.59%). Other documented techniques included oil extraction and utilization (4.35%), powdering (4.35%), heating of animal products (3.38%), extraction of byproducts (2.9%), application of pastes (2.9%), frying (2.41%), boiling (2.41%), and sucking (0.97%). Notably, the consumption of cooked, raw, boiled, or roasted animal preparations (whole animals or specific parts) is a common practice observed across various tribal communities in India [2, 24, 26, 37, 43, 54, 95].

Fig. 6

Percentage distribution of modes of preparation for remedies using medicinal animals and their products in the Jhargram

Routes of administration of animal parts or products for zootherapeutic uses

Traditional medicine is administered through various routes. In our study, oral administration was the most common method, observed in 81.64% of medicinal therapies (Fig. 7). Topical application accounted for 17.39%, while inhalation and anal routes were the least common, each representing 0.48% of the documented practices. This finding corroborates previous research, in which the oral route has been consistently reported as the most frequent method for delivering traditional medicines [37, 43, 46, 58]. Topical application emerged as another significant route for treating different ailments, especially muscle and bone-related diseases [20, 26, 53, 54]. Inhalation and anal application were rarely observed (0.48% each) in this area.

Fig. 7

Percentage distribution of application/administration routes for medicinal preparations derived from animal parts and products

Quantitative indices

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The results of the informant consensus factor (ICF) calculation in our study (Table 4) reveal values ranging from 0.93 to 1.00, indicating a high degree of agreement among the informants. The highest ICF value of 1.00 was recorded for infectious diseases (ID), with 12 use citations for a single taxon. This perfect consensus reflects the significant reliance on specific animal-derived remedies for treating infectious diseases. The second highest ICF value (0.99) was observed for eye ailments (EA), with 262 use citations for 5 taxa. Hair care (HC) also showed a high ICF value of 0.97 (40 use citations for 2 taxa), closely followed by respiratory system diseases (RSD) with an ICF value of 0.97 (409 use citations for 13 taxa). Similarly, general health (GH) and circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD) both had an ICF value of 0.97, indicating substantial informant agreement for treatments in these categories.

Lower ICF values, such as those for gastrointestinal ailments (GIA) (0.94, 376 use citations for 22 taxa) and skeletal-muscular system disorders (SMSD) (0.94, 465 use citations for 28 taxa), reflect greater variability in the choice of animal-based remedies. The lowest ICF value of 0.93 was observed for orthopedic problems, with 151 use citations for 12 taxa. This relatively lower agreement could result from differences in cultural practices, localized knowledge, or a broader range of treatments available for these conditions.

The high ICF values observed across most categories demonstrate significant agreement among informants, indicating a robust and well-established foundation of shared traditional knowledge within the community. As there is a correlation between the effectiveness of traditional remedies and the ICF values, these results can serve as a valuable tool in identifying animal species for future research [96, 97]. This result is consistent with previous studies that have reported similarly high levels of informant consensus for ailments that are both prevalent and culturally significant [54, 97,98,99].

In contrast, lower values in certain categories may point to a diversity of opinions or variability in knowledge transmission among informants. This observation is similarly supported by earlier research, which attributes such variability to differences in cultural practices, localized knowledge systems, or limited communication regarding specific treatments [48, 56, 58]

Fidelity level

The fidelity level is calculated to determine species that are most frequently used to treat certain disease [2, 49, 53]. The FL in this study revealed significant variation in respondent consensus, with 12 species scoring above 80% and 33 species scoring between 50 and 80%. These findings highlight the diversity and reliability of traditional medicinal knowledge in the community. Apis cerana and Homo sapiens both achieved the highest FL of 94.54%, reflecting its key role in treating eye irritation and cough respectively which is consistent with its traditional applications in regions such as Uttarakhand and Sikkim [2, 66]. Similarly, Gallus gallus domesticus demonstrated an FL of 87.27%, valued for addressing malnutrition, consistent with postpartum recovery practices in Darjeeling and Purulia of this region [64, 93]. Another species with a high FL, Palaemon sp., scored 92.72%, primarily for treating general weakness.

Wild or less commonly utilized species also showed significant FL values. Chamaeleo zeylanicus achieved an FL of 87.27%, used to treat neonatal skin discoloration. Bellamya bengalensis scored 81.81%, for treating conjunctivitis, emphasizing its specialized ophthalmic application. Moreover, Oceophylla smaragdina had an FL of 81.81%, used to treat cough and cold. Another notable example is Spilopelia chinensis., which scored 81.81% for its use as aphrodisiac.

Among the 33 species with FL values between 50 and 80%, Lissemys punctata stood out with an FL of 70.90%, where its shell is used for fontanelle strengthening. Centropus sinensis, with an FL of 63.63%, is utilized for treating malnutrition. Lower FL species, such as Rattus rattus at 45.45% for indigestion and Fowlea piscator at 9.09% for wound healing and skin disease, reveal more niche or localized applications within the community.

This broad spectrum of FL values reflects the depth of traditional medicinal practices and underscores the need to document and preserve such knowledge amidst socioeconomic and cultural changes. The observed variations in FL values suggest a nuanced understanding within the community regarding the effectiveness of different animal species for specific ailments [2, 56, 97]. According to several previously reported studies, species with high FL values often represent well-established and reliable therapeutic options within traditional medical systems, while lower FL values may indicate less-defined or infrequently cited uses, potentially reflecting emerging trends or localized innovations in animal-based medicine [2, 54, 56, 97, 100, 101].

The findings of this study demonstrate that in many instances, the same animal species are utilized to treat multiple ailments, a pattern that is consistent with traditional medicinal practices observed across various regions worldwide [37, 66, 102, 103]. Conversely, certain ailments are sometimes addressed using different animal species. This practice of employing diverse animals or remedies for the same condition is often appreciated as it offers flexibility based on the availability and accessibility of these resources [37, 104]

Frequency of citation

The frequency of citation (FC) index was calculated to evaluate the local importance of animal species used in traditional medicinal practices among the Jhargram community (Table 3). Homo sapiens sapiens recorded the highest FC value (96.36%), underscoring its critical role in treating wounds and health issues. Similarly, the honey bee (Apis cerana, FC = 94.54%) was one of the most frequently cited species, reflecting its widespread use in managing respiratory ailments and other conditions. Other highly cited vertebrates included Gallus gallus domesticus (FC = 90.90%), Ovis aries (FC = 81.81%), and Columba livia (FC = 90.90%), highlighting their extensive use and cultural importance in treating a range of ailments, including general health, musculoskeletal disorders, and respiratory problems.

In contrast, less frequently cited species such as Herpestes edwardsii (FC = 21.81%) and Hydrophilus sp. (FC = 14.54%) played more specialized roles in traditional healthcare, often tied to specific ailments or rare conditions. Despite their lower citation frequencies, their inclusion in the medicinal repertoire underscores their situational importance within the community.

The preference for vertebrates over invertebrates among the most frequently cited species mirrors worldwide ethnomedicinal practices, where mammals, birds, and reptiles are widely utilized as sources for traditional remedies. This trend has been documented in various countries, including India [27, 55, 105], South America [106,107,108] and Africa [109, 110] underscoring the significant cultural and medicinal roles these animal groups play in traditional healthcare systems.

Species with high FC values, such as honey bees and domesticated mammals, reflect their abundance, efficacy, and cultural relevance. In contrast, species like Hydrophilus sp., with lower FC values, likely highlight niche-specific uses or limited awareness rather than diminished therapeutic importance.

Use value

The use value (UV) of the documented zootherapeutic species highlights their relative importance based on informant citations (ΣUvi) and the number of informants (Ni). In the current study, UV values ranged from 1.0 to 5.69, indicating varying levels of reliance on these species for traditional medicinal practices (Table 5). The species with the highest UV was Apis cerana (5.69), extensively used for its medicinal properties, followed by Ovis aries (4.22), Lissemys punctata (4.07), Columba livia (3.82), and Bos indicus (3.58). Similar to our study, Apis cerana has been reported with higher UV values in several other studies [46, 97, 107]. The higher UV values for certain species emphasize their critical role in traditional healthcare, driven by their ability to address multiple health conditions through different preparations [58, 97, 111]. Conversely, species such as Hydrophilus sp., Palaemon sp., Oreochromis mossambicus, Chamaeleo zeylanicus, and Herpestes edwardsii had UV values of 1.0, indicating limited or specialized use. Previous studies have observed that low UV values often reflect specialized medicinal applications or cultural preferences, indicating that traditional knowledge of these species may fade away [46, 97].

Table 5 Use value of medicinal animals used to treat diseases in Jhargram district

Jaccard index

The Jaccard Index (JI) analysis provides critical insights into the overlap of animal species used in traditional medicinal practices across various regions (Table 6). Comparisons with distant countries revealed limited similarities, with Mauritius exhibiting the highest JI (10), likely due to shared tropical ecosystems and similar faunal resources. Ethiopia, on the other hand, recorded the lowest JI (2.7), reflecting distinct ecological and cultural contexts that influence species selection and use. Among neighboring countries, Nepal (JI = 16.9) and Bhutan (JI = 11.1) demonstrated moderate overlap, potentially due to shared biogeographic zones, cultural affinities, and comparable faunal assemblages. Conversely, Myanmar (JI = 3.9) showed lower overlap, which may be attributed to ecological differences and the limited number of species documented in ethnozoological studies from that region. Within India, Kerala exhibited the highest JI (27.3), followed by Tamil Nadu (24.18) and Goa (22.95), indicating significant ecological and cultural congruence in traditional medicinal practices. These values highlight extensive use of similar faunal resources, influenced by comparable environmental conditions and shared knowledge systems. In contrast, states such as Madhya Pradesh (7.14) and Meghalaya (7.6) displayed limited similarity, potentially due to distinct ecological zones, localized traditions reported in ethnozoological studies from these regions. In West Bengal, district-level comparisons revealed moderate overlap between Jhargram (JI = 17.6) and Darjeeling (JI = 15.3), indicative of shared traditional knowledge and faunal utilization. However, Duars (JI = 7.7) exhibited lower similarity, likely due to localized practices and a smaller number of species included in prior documentation. The high JI often reflects shared geological zones, ecological conditions, faunal composition, and cultural practices, along with universal therapeutic uses of animal species. In contrast, low JI may indicate differences in geological zones, local knowledge, medicinal beliefs, and ecological factors influencing species selection for healthcare [51, 52].

Table 6 Jaccard similarity index (JI) for animal-based traditional medicine uses across different geographical areas

Conservation status of animals

Our study identified several animal species utilized by local communities for medicinal purposes that are listed on the IUCN Red List under the categories of Vulnerable (VU) or Near Threatened (NT). The VU category included Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the Indian flapshell turtle (Lissemys punctata), while the Indian mottled eel (Anguilla bengalensis) and the Bengal monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis) were identified as Near Threatened in the IUCN Red List [112]. A significant proportion of the species surveyed in this study are listed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN, indicating a relatively stable population. Examples include the Bengal snail (Bellamya bengalensis), Rock agama (Psammophilus dorsalis), Red junglefowl (Gallus gallus domesticus), and Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis).

The use of these species for medicinal purposes reflects their cultural importance. However, this approach raises concerns about the long-term population sustainability. While the focus on least concern (LC) species suggests a lower immediate threat, continuous monitoring is essential to ensure sustainable practices and to prevent future conservation challenges.

The medicinal value of animal products must be evaluated. If found ineffective, communities should be informed about the need to protect threatened species and preserve biodiversity. Previous studies have reported the importance of such evaluations in ensuring the sustainability of traditional medicine and biodiversity conservation [20, 108]. Strengthening socioecological systems is essential for species survival and the sustainability of traditional practices. Collaboration between conservationists and indigenous communities is necessary to develop strategies that protect both species and knowledge systems. A balance between traditional knowledge and modern conservation practices is required to safeguard biodiversity and improve local health and well-being.

Novelty of data

While many practices in Jhargram align with those documented in other regions, this study also identifies several innovative and region-specific uses of animal parts and products, contributing significantly to the field of zootherapy. Notably, some species have been associated with entirely new applications that have not been previously reported in Indian ethnomedicinal literature. These findings are presented as novel based on an exhaustive review of the existing ethnomedicinal literature available to date. While absolute certainty regarding the novelty of these uses cannot be claimed, the diversity of species involved—from invertebrates, reptiles, birds, and fish—supports the uniqueness of these applications. Among these, Hydrophilus sp., Mytilus edulis, Oreochromis mossambicus, Fowlea piscator, Psammophilus dorsalis, Halcyon smyrnensis, Dinopium benghalense, Centropus sinensis, Amaurornis phoenicurus, Ardeola grayii, Ardea alba, Streptopelia decaocto, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, and Anthus rufulus have been identified with new applications that are, to the best of our knowledge, novel in the Indian context (see Table 3 for details). For instance, the whole body of Hydrophilus sp. is consumed raw along with banana to treat tetany, an application not documented elsewhere in India; similarly, the powdered shell of Mytilus edulis is employed to address malnutrition during pregnancy and post-pregnancy, an addition to its known applications for general nutrition in other regions. An example among fish is the use of Oreochromis mossambicus. Its skin is applied raw to burns, a practice believed to reduce pain and promote healing, representing a unique approach to burn care in ethnomedicine. Among reptiles, Fowlea piscator is utilized for its meat to treat rheumatism and promote wound healing, demonstrating its medicinal value beyond common dietary use. Moreover, Psammophilus dorsalis is notable for its oil, extracted from the whole body and applied topically to alleviate joint pain, offering an innovative use of reptilian resources in traditional medicine.

Among birds, the meat of Halcyon smyrnensis is roasted and consumed to treat tetany and typhoid, uses that are unprecedented in the Indian ethnomedicinal context; similarly, Amaurornis phoenicurus is uniquely prepared as a cooked remedy for digestive issues and muscle pain, while the syrinx of Phalacrocorax fuscicollis is ground into a paste for respiratory diseases like asthma, a novel application in traditional medicine. In addition to that the use of Anthus rufulus meat in boiled soup form for skin care represents a previously unrecorded therapeutic approach.

Our study identifies novel species and innovative uses for familiar ones, including species previously documented in Indian ethnomedicinal literature now recognized for new therapeutic applications in this region. For instances, the Apis cerana (honey bee), renowned for the medicinal properties of its honey, has been widely utilized for respiratory and digestive issues. However, its application for promoting cardiac health, as documented in this study, is a significant addition to its therapeutic repertoire. Equally intriguing is the innovative use of Periplaneta americana fecal matter to alleviate indigestion and constipation. The study also revisits the therapeutic applications of Bellamya bengalensis. While the use of water from soaked shells as eye drops for conjunctivitis is known [113], this research identifies a specific and undocumented use of shell water as a natural cleanser to enhance lens clarity and vision. This novel practice illustrates the nuanced understanding of local communities regarding the bioactive potential of molluscs.

A particularly remarkable finding pertains to the novel use of Anguilla bengalensis; fresh blood from this species is applied to the scalp to prevent hair loss and topically to ankle scratches to promote wound healing. Interestingly, similar practices are observed in Nagaland, where the fresh blood of Anguilla bengalensis is consumed to treat general weakness and asthma [114]. Another example is the use of Channa punctatus, which is cooked and consumed to enhance sexual health and vitality. Similarly, a notable practice involves Chamaeleo zeylanicus, where the powdered tail is mixed with breast milk and administered orally to newborns to treat skin discoloration. This culturally unique practice in neonatal care represents an entirely novel application of chameleon derivatives.

Similarly, the powdered shells of Lissemys punctata and Scylla serrata are applied topically to the fontanelle of newborns to strengthen it. Another intriguing example involves Athene brama, which serves as a dual remedy for enhancing night vision. Both the meat and powdered head of the bird are consumed, reflecting a culturally significant practice likely inspired by the owl’s exceptional nocturnal vision, an adaptation to low-light environments. This distinctive application is unreported in other regions of India.

The documentation of these novel therapeutic uses highlights the depth of indigenous knowledge and its adaptability to local health challenges. By uncovering previously unreported roles of these species in traditional medicine, this study makes a significant contribution to the expanding field of ethnobiological research. It not only enhances the understanding of species utility but also underscores the importance of ongoing efforts to document, preserve, and explore traditional practices for their potential biomedical applications. The findings emphasize that the cultural and ecological specificity of such knowledge systems offers great promise for modern pharmacological advancements.

Recent scientific insights into the pharmacological properties of animal parts and products

Recent scientific studies have provided empirical support for the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of various animal parts and products, as evidenced in this study and prior research. For instance, In vitro studies have highlighted honey's rich flavonoid content, known for its antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Flavonoids in honey mitigate inflammatory processes by modulating enzymes like COX, LOX, and iNOS and controlling inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide and cytokines. Structure–activity relationship studies show that flavonoids prevent inflammatory cascades, reinforcing honey’s therapeutic potential [115, 116]. In our study, live leech therapy was employed for skin disease A recent study found that leech therapy combined with Panchatikta Ghrita is a safe, cost-effective, and effective treatment for psoriasis, without the serious side effects of corticosteroids [117]. Another randomized controlled trial comparing leech therapy with antifungal clotrimazole cream for dermatophytosis showed significant therapeutic effects in both groups, with no adverse events [118]. The outcomes are attributed to bioactive compounds in leech saliva, such as hirudin, hyaluronidase, and fibrinases and collagenase. These compounds are believed to contribute to their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and wound healing effects [119]. A recent study reported the significant antioxidant potential of weaver ants and termites, two insect species commonly consumed by tribal communities in India. Termites exhibited stronger antioxidant activity and higher levels of phenolic compounds, making them effective in combating oxidative stress. On the other hand, weaver ants, particularly the adult form, demonstrated remarkable flavonoid content, which is known for its antioxidant and health-promoting properties. Weaver ant broods also showed substantial levels of phenolics and flavonoids, suggesting their nutritional and therapeutic value [120]. Similarly, bioactive peptides derived from fish bones have demonstrated notable photoprotective properties. These peptides, obtained through enzymatic treatment and ultrafiltration, were effective in reducing oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and proinflammatory cytokines in experimental models. Additionally, fish bone nanoparticles have shown superior calcium bioavailability in murine models compared to traditional calcium carbonate, highlighting their potential as an innovative calcium source [121, 122] Tilapia skin is used to treat burns in Jhargram. Recent studies on tilapia skin acellular dermal matrix (TADM) highlight its potential in healing large-area acute skin wounds. Composed mainly of type I collagen, TADM mimics the extracellular matrix, supporting cell infiltration, angiogenesis, and tissue repair [123]. Urine has been recognized in traditional medicine across various cultures for its purported therapeutic properties. In modern research, this ancient belief has been supported by the discovery of urine-derived stem cells (USCs), which hold significant promise for treating urological disorders [124]. These studies not only provide a scientific basis for the medicinal value of animal-derived products but also encourage further investigation into their safety and efficacy, bridging the gap between traditional knowledge and modern pharmacology.

Environmental and public health challenges in ethnomedicinal animal use

The use of animal-based traditional medicine in Jhargram, though culturally significant, poses environmental and public health challenges, including biodiversity loss, habitat degradation, zoonotic risks, and weak integration with modern healthcare. Tackling these issues is vital for preserving both biodiversity and the sustainability of traditional practice

Environmental challenges

Globally, zootherapeutic practices have been linked to the overharvesting of animal species, causing population declines and ecological imbalances [14, 125] In India, similar patterns are evident, with species such as Apis cerana, Lissemys punctata, Varanus bengalensis commonly used for their medicinal properties [37, 43, 54]. In Jhargram, the use of Chamaeleo zeylanicus and Lissemys punctata exemplifies the community’s dependence on wildlife for healthcare. Both species face ecological pressures due to habitat loss and unregulated harvesting, with Lissemys punctata classified as vulnerable by the IUCN. Likewise, Anguilla bengalensis and the Varanus bengalensis are categorized as near threatened and are exploited for their medicinal properties, exacerbating their vulnerability. Besides this, the use of bird species such as Athene brama and Columba livia for medicinal purposes has raised concerns about declining local avian biodiversity. These practices indicate toward the conflict between traditional healthcare and conservation efforts. Studies from different regions of India have reported similar issues related to the overuse of faunal resources for traditional medicine [20, 114].

The widespread use of species classified as least concern further raises concerns about localized depletion, especially in areas with high dependency on these resources [126]. Rapid urbanization and agricultural expansion in Jhargram have reduced forest cover and fragmented critical habitats [127], disrupting migratory routes and food availability for wild animals. This kind of habitat fragmentation isolates populations, reducing genetic diversity and increasing the risk of local extinctions [128, 129].

Human–wildlife conflicts, particularly with elephants, are a significant environmental concern in Jhargram [130,131,132]. The region lies along a migratory route for elephants, leading to crop damage, property loss, and occasional injuries or fatalities [130]. These conflicts are exacerbated when traditional practices bring people closer to wildlife. Addressing these conflicts requires integrated conservation strategies that balance community needs with wildlife protection, ensuring sustainable use of faunal resources while minimizing such conflicts.

The lack of effective enforcement of policies regulating wildlife use for medicinal purposes exacerbates these challenges, as unregulated harvesting continues to threaten already vulnerable species. While policies are in place, their proper implementation is often difficult [133]. Addressing these challenges requires a community-based conservation approach that includes regulating wildlife use, enhancing habitat protection, and ensuring stronger enforcement of policies to guarantee sustainable practices. Educational campaigns promoting sustainable resource use and alternative medicinal practices can play a critical role in reducing reliance on endangered species while preserving cultural traditions. Collaboration between local communities, conservation organizations, and policymakers is essential to develop strategies that balance conservation efforts with the healthcare needs of the community.

Public health challenges

The use of animal-based traditional medicine in Jhargram, while deeply rooted in local cultural and therapeutic practices, presents significant public health challenges that require comprehensive analysis. One critical issue is the absence of scientific validation for many of these remedies, which raises concerns about their safety, efficacy, and reliability, as reported by previous studies [134, 135]. Traditional treatments, such as the use of fat or meat from Varanus bengalensis and Hoplobatrachus tigerinus for various ailments, rely on orally transmitted indigenous knowledge but remain largely unverified by clinical trials or pharmacological studies. This gap in evidence-based research limits their broader acceptance and utilization in clinical settings while posing potential risks to public health. Similar challenges have been documented in other regions of India, where remedies involving animal products, such as snake fat and pangolin scales, have been found to lack sufficient scientific evidence to support their claimed therapeutic properties [134, 136].

Another pressing concern is the potential for zoonotic disease transmission through the use of animal-based remedies. Several previous studies have reported similar risks, emphasizing that traditional animal medicinal practices can act as vectors for zoonotic diseases [39, 134, 137, 138]. Moreover, the improper handling and preparation of these materials significantly increase the risk of such zoonotic disease outbreaks, as this has been observed in previous studies from rural areas where unregulated use of animal products led to exposure to diseases such as brucellosis and salmonellosis [139, 140]. These risks are exacerbated by the lack of standardized hygiene practices during the preparation and administration of remedies, often carried out in unsanitary conditions without proper sterilization. Without regulatory frameworks to ensure quality control, these remedies pose significant public health threats.

Moreover, the use of traditional remedies for severe or chronic conditions can often delay timely access to modern healthcare, potentially exacerbating health outcomes, worsening health outcomes. While these remedies may provide temporary relief for minor ailments, they are frequently inadequate for addressing complex conditions [16]. For instance, treatments used for asthma, tetany, renal stones, or gallstones may result in delayed or insufficient medical intervention, potentially aggravating these conditions. Previous studies have documented that dependence on traditional remedies for illnesses such as tuberculosis or cancer can delay access to allopathic treatments, resulting in poorer prognoses and adverse health outcomes [141,142,143].

The erosion of ethnomedicinal knowledge further complicates these public health challenges. As socioeconomic changes and urbanization reshape rural communities, younger generations in Jhargram are becoming increasingly disconnected from traditional practices. This loss of intergenerational knowledge transfer not only undermines the continuity of these traditions but also reduces the availability of cultural and therapeutic practices refined over generations. Similar trends have been observed across India and other countries, where rapid cultural and economic changes, urbanization, the expansion of modern education, and easy access to modern medicine have significantly reduced the transmission of traditional knowledge [37, 144,145,146]. The aging of traditional practitioners, without sufficient transfer of expertise to younger generations, further underscores the urgent need for preservation efforts [147].

Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach. Systematic research is essential to validate the safety and efficacy of animal-based remedies, bridging traditional knowledge with modern science. Educational initiatives can raise awareness about zoonotic risks, hygiene practices, and the limitations of ethnomedicine. Regulatory frameworks must standardize traditional remedies while conserving biodiversity. Collaborative efforts among local practitioners, public health authorities, and conservationists can integrate traditional and modern healthcare systems, preserving Jhargram’s rich traditions while ensuring public health and well-being.

Conclusion and future direction

This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the indigenous use of animal-based therapies, specifically among the ethnic communities in Jhargram, West Bengal, India. While previous studies [90, 148] have explored similar practices in this region and adjacent areas, our research represents a more comprehensive and systematic effort to document this knowledge.

Our study offers a comprehensive documentation of traditional knowledge regarding animal-derived remedies, emphasizing both well-established and novel uses by local communities. This knowledge reflects a profound understanding of the medicinal potential of local fauna; however, it is increasingly at risk due to factors such as urbanization, cultural shifts, and the growing availability of modern healthcare. To preserve this valuable knowledge, it is crucial to integrate ethnobiology and traditional medicinal practices into educational curricula, fostering awareness and understanding among younger generations. Furthermore, promoting entrepreneurship centered around the sustainable use of these remedies can provide economic incentives while safeguarding cultural heritage. Expanding clinical studies to validate the medicinal properties of these remedies will be essential for ensuring their safe application and reinforcing their potential role in complementing modern healthcare. Further research is required to incorporate this traditional knowledge into conservation and management strategies, thereby ensuring its continued contribution to both biodiversity conservation and public health.

The current body of research on the ethnomedicinal uses of animal parts and products is promising, but there are several key areas that warrant deeper investigation to unlock their full potential. Combining traditional knowledge with cutting-edge scientific techniques will be crucial in advancing our understanding of animal-derived remedies. One promising direction is the application of high-throughput screening technologies to rapidly identify bioactive compounds within animal products. This could enable the discovery of previously unknown therapeutic agents and expedite the process of drug development. Moreover, next-generation sequencing and proteomics could be used to map the molecular profiles of animal-derived substances, providing insights into their modes of action at the cellular and molecular levels. These techniques could help identify specific biomarkers that correlate with the medicinal properties of different animal parts, paving the way for precision medicine.

To ensure the safety and efficacy of animal-derived remedies, future studies must include comprehensive in vivo models that replicate human physiology more accurately. These systems would allow for a more detailed understanding of the pharmacokinetics animal-based treatments, including their interactions with human metabolism and immune systems. Furthermore, the development of advanced computational models could assist in predicting the therapeutic potential and toxicity of animal-derived products before they undergo clinical trials, reducing the risk of adverse effects. Given the ecological concerns surrounding the sustainability of harvesting animal parts, future research should also prioritize the exploration of alternatives, such as synthetic biology and biotechnological production of animal-derived compounds. This could help mitigate the over-exploitation of animal populations while ensuring a consistent and ethical supply of bioactive substances for medicinal purposes.

Moreover, the integration of ethnobiology education and entrepreneurial applications into local communities' development is essential for the long-term sustainability of both traditional practices and scientific advancements. Ethnobiology education, integrated into local and formal educational systems, ensures the preservation and transfer of traditional ecological knowledge. This knowledge is invaluable for understanding the sustainable use of natural resources and can guide future scientific research and conservation efforts. By incorporating ethnobiology into curricula at various educational levels, from schools to Universities, local communities can be empowered to retain and further develop their knowledge systems while contributing to the global scientific community.

Community-based workshops and training can help disseminate knowledge among younger generations, ensuring that traditional practices are passed down in a culturally relevant and scientifically informed manner. Collaboration with local Universities or research institutions to offer specialized training on ethnobiology and its applications in fields such as medicine and agriculture could also increase local engagement with and respect for their traditional practices. The entrepreneurial application of ethnobiological data can open new avenues for local economic development. By identifying the bioactive potential of plants, animals, and other natural resources used in traditional medicine, local communities can create sustainable, marketable products, providing a source of income for local people while maintaining sustainable harvesting practices. Establishing community-based enterprises focusing on the cultivation, processing, and commercialization of ethnobiologically significant resources can improve local livelihoods and promote sustainable practices in natural resource management. Involving indigenous knowledge holders in these enterprises ensures that both traditional wisdom and modern innovations are integrated, creating a harmonious balance between cultural preservation and economic growth. As these advancements unfold, animal-derived products may play a pivotal role in future of personalized medicine, offering new treatment options for diseases that are currently difficult to manage.