Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and their threats in Yeki district, Southwestern Ethiopia

Abstract

Background

Ethiopia is recognized as a significant center of origin for a wide variety of plant species, particularly those with medicinal properties. A substantial segment of the population across the nation depends on these therapeutic plants for their primary healthcare needs. Many communities, both rural and urban, engage in traditional medicine practices, passing down their knowledge orally from one generation to the next. Consequently, this study was undertaken to record the traditional medicinal plants and the related indigenous knowledge in the Yeki district of Southwest Ethiopia.

Methods

Between March 2024 and August 2024, semi-structured interviews, in-person meetings, group discussions, and escorted field trips were used to gather quantitative ethnobotanical data. A total of 132 informants 100 men and 32 women were interviewed in order to gather ethnobotanical data. The informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), plant part value, preference ranking, and direct matrix ranking were among the quantitative techniques that were employed. Furthermore, the study used a variety of statistical tests, such as independent t-tests, one-way ANOVA, correlation, and regression with R software version 4.3.2, to compare the ethnobotanical knowledge of various informant groups.

Result

A total of 98 species of traditional medicinal plants from 81 genera and 45 plant families were identified in the current study. The Asteraceae (11 species) were the largest family used by local peoples, followed by Solanaceae (8 species). The most commonly used plant parts were leaves and roots, and the primary technique for making remedies was crushing. The respiratory systems disease categories had the second highest consensus score (ICF: 0.90), after the dermal disease category (ICF: 0.91). The number of medicinal plants reported by respondents across gender, age groups, educational level, and informant’s type varied significantly (P < 0.05). Various medicinal species can be found in the area’s vegetation, but they are threatened by deforestation, agricultural extension, firewood, modernization, IAS, charcoal production, and material culture.

Conclusion

The results highlight the extensive variety of medicinal plants and the accompanying traditional knowledge present in the Guraferda district. The elevated ethnobotanical indices justify the need for additional phytochemical and pharmacological research. It is advisable to implement integrated conservation strategies to tackle the challenges confronting these precious plant resources.

Background

Humans have maintained a profound connection with plants throughout history, relying on them for essential daily requirements such as nourishment, shelter, energy, medicinal purposes, and animal feed [1]. In particular, medicinal plants have played a crucial role in traditional healthcare systems, offering remedies for a wide range of human health issues [2]. This close relationship between humanity and the natural world has fostered a rich repository of traditional knowledge regarding medicinal plants. Traditional knowledge encompasses the distinctive insights possessed by specific cultures or societies, developed over generations through customary practices [1, 3, 6]. The utilization of medicinal plants has been a fundamental aspect of traditional healthcare systems since ancient times.

Ethiopia is well known for its abundant biodiversity, especially in medicinal plants, which are vital to the healthcare systems of various communities [4, 5, 10]. The Southwestern region of the country, featuring many protected forests and biosphere reserves, is particularly noted for its variety of plant species [7, 8]. Among these regions, Yeki district in Southwestern Ethiopia is distinguished by its unique ecological attributes and the deep-seated traditional practices of its residents. For generations, the local population has depended on medicinal plants, leveraging their ancestral knowledge to address various health issues and promote well-being. In Yeki district, medicinal plants are not only essential for primary health care but also play a significant role in the cultural identity and heritage of the communities. The transmission of traditional knowledge about these plants typically occurs orally, passed down through generations by elders and traditional healers. This knowledge includes not only the identification and preparation of medicinal plants but also their spiritual and cultural significance within the community. However, this rich ethnobotanical heritage is increasingly at risk due to factors such as habitat destruction from agricultural expansion, overharvesting, climate change, and the influence of modern healthcare practices [8, 9].

Yeki district is home to indigenous communities representing various ethnic groups, including the Sheka, Sheko, and Majang. The district has also seen an influx of migrants from other regions of the country, largely due to government resettlement initiatives and the pursuit of agricultural and grazing opportunities [12]. The healthcare system in Yeki encompasses a range of facilities, including a hospital, health stations, clinics, and pharmacies; however, access to these services is significantly limited in rural areas. Consequently, the local population heavily relies on traditional medicinal plants and the associated knowledge passed down through generations. Given the area’s dense forest cover and the close interaction between the community and its natural environment, residents frequently encounter health issues such as snake bites, jaundice, and worm infestations (locally referred to as Koshkosho in the Shekinono language). These conditions are typically treated with traditional remedies provided by local healers who possess deep-rooted indigenous knowledge, rather than through modern medical interventions.

According to the Yeki district health office’s 2023 report, the most commonly reported health issues in the district include malaria, typhoid fever, typhus, acute upper respiratory infections, pneumonia, functional intestinal disorders, fevers of unknown origin, helminthiases, amoebiasis, and urinary system disorders. The already strained healthcare system is further burdened by a significant influx of seasonal laborers during coffee harvesting, which exacerbates the limited resources available. Yeki district’s remote location, its distance from major towns, and its proximity to the Gambela region border have facilitated the exchange of traditional medicinal knowledge among communities. This has likely resulted in the discovery of new ethnobotanical findings in the area. As a result, local residents have increasingly relied on and shared their knowledge of traditional medicinal plants to meet their healthcare needs. However, there are growing concerns regarding the potential loss of this traditional knowledge and skill. Factors such as deforestation for agriculture, modern education, the presence of invasive alien species, and a diminishing interest among younger generations contribute to this decline. This issue is also observed in other parts of Southwest Ethiopia. Despite Ethiopia’s efforts to publish ethnobotanical documentation on various ethnic groups over the past few decades, a study conducted in the study area seven years ago revealed methodological, spatial, temporal, and theoretical gaps. Given the district’s cultural diversity and rich vegetation, it is hypothesized that there exists a wealth of valuable medicinal plant knowledge among the people of Yeki district that warrants further investigation. Additionally, the traditional knowledge of these plants tends to decline with age, resulting in decreased awareness among younger generations. Habitat loss due to agriculture and deforestation is perceived as a significant threat to the availability of these plants, while increased access to modern education has negatively impacted the use of traditional medicine.

The decline of these essential resources presents significant risks not only to the availability of traditional medicine but also to the cultural integrity of the communities that rely on them. As modernization increasingly shapes lifestyle choices and healthcare practices, there is an urgent need to evaluate the status of medicinal plants in Yeki district and understand their implications for both biodiversity and cultural heritage. Additionally, comparing the findings of such a study with the Southwestern Ethiopian ethnobotanical medicinal plant database could yield valuable insights into the regional distribution and use of these plants, enhancing our understanding of Ethiopia’s rich traditional plant-based healthcare system. Given the unique cultural and ecological context of the study area, along with the pressing need to document and preserve traditional medicinal plant knowledge, this study aims to: (i) document the medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge utilized by local communities, (ii) identify and analyze the key threats facing medicinal plants and assess existing conservation strategies, (iii) explore the cultural significance of medicinal plants within local communities, and (iv) formulate policy recommendations based on research findings to guide local government and conservation organizations in developing strategies for the sustainable management of medicinal plant resources in Yeki district.

Methods and materials

Description of the study area

The study was carried out between March 2024 and August 2024 in the Yeki district of the Sheka Zone in Southwest Ethiopia. The study area’s geographical location falls between latitudes 7°12′ and 7°43′ W and longitudes 35°32′ and 35°75′ E. with an area of 48,871 hectares and an elevation between 1000 and 2000 m above sea level. The district’s capital is Tepi town, which is 133 km from the regional town of Bonga and 611 km southwest of Ethiopia’s capital, Addis Ababa. Yeki district shares borders with the Bench Maji Zone to the south, the Gambela Region to the west, Anderacha to the north, and the Keffa Zone to the east (Fig. 1). Farming and trading are the people’s primary occupations. Of the 134,519 people living in the Yeki district, 68,895 are men and 65,624 are women. Of these, 24,829, or 18.46%, live in urban areas.In this district, the Kafficho (29.78%), Amhara (29.48%), Oromo (11.67%), Shekkacho (7.45%), Bench (7.33%), Sheko (7.26%), and Majang (6.1%) were the six largest ethnic groups recorded; the remaining ethnic groups accounted for 1.54% of the population. 32.91% of residents spoke Amharic as their first language, followed by Kafa (28.48%), Oromiffa (11.36%), Sheki-noono (7.55%), Sheko (7.17%), and Bench (6.84%). The remaining 5.69% spoke all other primary languages [11].

Fig. 1

Map of the study area (Arc GIS 10.4.1)

Climate

According to climate data gathered from the Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency for the years 2001–2021, Yeki district experienced monthly lows of 13.1 °C, highs of 34.2 °C, and averages of 21.6 °C annually. Figure 2 also shows that the town received 1352 mm of rain on average each year. This area has a unimodal rainfall pattern, meaning that it mostly falls throughout the year. According to[12], the extensive rainfall helps to create the moist evergreen vegetation of the Afromontane Forest, which is home to a wide range of unusual plant species. Highland regions make up 56% of the agro-ecosystems in the Yeki district, followed by midland (Woynadaga) regions (24%) and lowland (wet qolla) regions (20%).

Fig. 2

The climate diagram of Yeki district

Informant and study sites selection

Purposive sampling was used to choose study kebeles, with an emphasis on finding kebeles with higher levels of vegetation cover and a known history of using medicinal plants. Furthermore, the selection of study sites was supported by previous information obtained from local healthcare professionals, respected elders, community leaders, focus group discussion (FGD) participants, and traditional healers. Consequently, 11 study kebeles (Table 1) were selected, which is 47.8% of the Yeki district’s total of 23 kebeles. The following list includes the chosen study kebeles: Komi, Alamo, Adisbirhan, Achani, Shimerga, Kura, Mich, Hibretfire, Tsanu, Selamber and Ermich (Fig. 1). The study included interviews with 132 informants, ranging in age from 18 to 85. From each of the 11 kebeles, 12 people were chosen. According to [3], 90 general informants were chosen by snowball sampling from the local population in the study area, while 42 key informants were chosen through purposive sampling in accordance with recommendations. Participants in the study were divided into three groups: young adults (18–35), middle-aged (36–52), and elderly (53–90)[13]. In order to examine the transmission of knowledge about medicinal plants between generations, the study focused on people under 30[13].

Table 1 Altitude, Latitude, and Longitude of Selected Sample Kebeles. Source: GPS and Google earth map

Ethnobotanical data collection

The reconnaissance survey was conducted inside Yeki district between January 2024 and February 2024. Its goal was to produce a preliminary understanding of the region’s agro-ecological features, the current state of the vegetation, the indigenous knowledge of the local population about the various uses of plants, an evaluation of accessibility, and other relevant environmental factors. Additionally, throughout the specified time frame, verbal informed consent was acquired from every participant in the study. Ethnomedical data were gathered between March 2024 and August 2024. With the help of the respondents, plant species were collected, and a list of medicinal plants was created, complete with local names and images. Feld observations, guided field walks, semi-structured interviews, market surveys, and focus groups were used to gather ethnomedical data on medicinal plants in accordance with the procedures outlined in pertinent sources[3, 75]. The semi-structured interviews were conducted using English language questions that had been translated in to the most local spoken language (Shekinono, Shekoaid, Mjang, Amharic, and Kaffa). In order to gather adequate information on medicinal plant species, parts used, preparation techniques, commonly treated illnesses, administration routes, and dosage determination, individual informant interviews were conducted. Information was obtained from the community about the threats to species of medicinal plants. By interviewing traditional medicine practitioners and healers who served as key informants and general informants, voucher specimens of all reported medicinal plants were gathered from different habitat locations. Important georeferenced information was recorded using the geographical positioning system (GPS), along with each plant specimen’s habitat, habits, and colloquial plant names. With the aid of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, voucher plant specimens were identified, pressed, dried, and numbered and coded[14]. A comparison with verified plant specimens from Addis Ababa University’s National Herbarium confirmed the identification, which was then confirmed by taxonomic specialists and ultimately deposited at Mizan-Tepi University for future use.

Data analysis

Microsoft Word 2019 was utilized to gather, compile, classify, and document the field data, which included scientific and local plant names, families, life forms, parts used, and habitats. Frequency tools like tables, bar graphs, and pie charts were used in the analysis. R software version 4.3.2 was used to compute descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). Before using the t-test, the Shapiro–Wilk test was used to determine normality. Based on plants that were reported, gender differences in TMPK were investigated using an independent t-test. Variations in knowledge across educational levels and healing experiences were examined using a different t-test. Age-group knowledge differences were evaluated using ANOVA. The association between age and reported plants was examined using Pearson correlation and linear regression [13].

Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data

Plant part value (PPV)

According to the methodology by[3], the plant part value calculation shows the proportion of plant parts such as stems, leaves, roots, fruits, bark, and flowers that are used for medicinal purposes. It is calculated as follows:

$$\mathbf{PPV}(\text{\%})=\frac{\sum \mathbf{RU}(\mathbf{plant part})}{\sum \mathbf{RU}}\times 100$$

where ∑ RU _{(plant part)} represents the sum of the cited plant parts and ∑ RU represents the total number of cited uses for a given plant.

Informant consensus

The validity of the information recorded was checked by contacting informants at least twice for the same ideas in order to assess the reliability of the information obtained during the interview. The original information was rejected because it was deemed unreliable if the informants’ opinions conflicted with it. Each category’s informant consensus factor (ICF) is computed to determine the informants’ agreement regarding the reported treatments for the group of illnesses. The ICF was determined in this way:

$$\mathbf{I}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{F}=\frac{\mathbf{N}\mathbf{u}\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{N}\mathbf{t}}{\mathbf{N}\mathbf{u}\mathbf{r}-1}$$

where Nur is the number of informant use reports for a specific plant-use category and Nt is the total number of taxa or species used for that plant-use category across all informants. The index has a range of 0 to 1, where values close to 1 indicate that informants strongly agree that the same species is used[15].

Fidelity level (FL)

Using a fidelity level (FL), as suggested by[16], the relative healing potential of medicinal plants in treating human ailments was evaluated. The following formula was used to calculate the fidelity level (FL):

$$\mathbf{F}\mathbf{L}(\mathbf{\%})=\frac{\mathbf{I}\mathbf{P}}{\mathbf{I}\mathbf{U}}\times 100$$

where FL = fidelity level or relative healing potential, IP = the number of informants who independently cited the importance of a species for treating a particular ailment (frequency of citation of a species for a particular aliment), and IU = the total number of informants who reported the medicinal plant for a given disease (total number of citations of that species).

Jaccard similarityindex (JSI)

Jaccard’s similarity index was employed to assess the similarity in medicinal palnt species composition across studies conducted in various regions of the country. The calculation of Jaccard’s similarity index was performed using the following formula: $\mathbf{J}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{S}=\frac{\mathbf{c}}{\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{c}}$

Jaccard’s similarity index quantifies the degree of similarity between two distinct study areas: study area a (the current study area) and study area b (other study areas). This metric is based on the species present in each area, represented as a for study area a and b for study area b, along with the number of common species, denoted as c. JSI values range from 0 to 1, where a value of 1 indicates complete similarity and a value of 0 signifies no similarity. To express JSI as a percentage, it can be multiplied by 100, resulting in a percentage JSI.

Preference ranking

In accordance with [3, 75], ten key informants have been chosen to evaluate the level of efficacy of five medicinal plants for humans against intestinal parasites. The medicinal plants with the highest value (5) were thought to be the most effective in treating the illness, while the least effective ones received the lowest value (1). Each species’ value was added up, and the total score was used to determine each species’ rank. This made it easier to identify the medicinal plants that the community used most successfully to treat the illnesses.

Direct matrix ranking

Direct matrix ranking was used to compare multipurpose medicinal plants that informants frequently reported using, in accordance with[3]. Out of all the medicinal plants, five multipurpose tree species were chosen based on the relative advantages of each plant, and five of these plants’ uses were listed. To assign use values for each attribute, ten key informants were selected (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less, and 1 = least used). Medicinal use, construction, charcoal production, furniture, food, firewood value, and agricultural tool value are the seven use values.

Results and discussion

Sociodemographic attributes of informants in the study area

A total of 132 people participated in this study. Males made up 75.7% of the participants (n = 100), with females making up the remaining 24.2% (n = 32). Regarding the healing experience, the majority of participants (68.1%; n = 90) were categorized as general informants, with key informants coming in second at 31.8% (n = 42). The study included participants ranging in age from 18 to 85. With 51.5% (n = 68) of them falling into the 53–85 age group, the largest percentage was followed by the 36–52 age group with 31.1% (n = 41). Participants’ educational backgrounds varied from illiteracy to literate. It was discovered that 64.4% of the participants were illiterate (n = 85), with those who are literate coming in second at 35.6% (n = 47) (Table 2).

Table 2 Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents

Medicinal plants naming related to culture in the study area

The local people have a wealth of knowledge and cultural beliefs about the traditional healthcare system and other social issues. Most of the time, the peoples are able to identify the plants in their area by their native names. However, in certain cases, when it is difficult to find a precise synonym or colloquial name for a particular plant species (usually herbs) while the plant is still being used traditionally, either directly or indirectly, the names given to the medicinally significant plant species are based on the type of illness the plant was used to treat. For the Sheka people, any plant that has medicinal value and is named after the root word (the name of the health issue) and for which the plant is used as a remedy in their community is given the suffix “Atto” which denotes medication for a specific medical condition. In the same way, any health issue that is named with the suffix “Bewo” added to a specific body organ refers to that organ’s diseases which denotes illnesses or conditions affecting that particular body organ. The term Wame Bewo, which refers to ear disorders; The term “Yik’e Bewo” refers to back pain or spinal cord disease; Afe Bewo: referring to eye disorders; in addition to many other things, Shit’t’o Bewo means nose diseases. The term “Qewe Bewo” refers to Black leg diseases of livestock. Dingare Atto: a remedy for snake bites or snake poisoning. This name is consistent with the [12] report.

Diversity and distribution of medicinal plants in the study area

In the study area, 98 different species of medicinal plants from 81 genera and 45 families were found to be used to treat 16 livestock diseases and 36 human diseases. Of these 98 plant species, 74 (75.5%) were used as human medicines, 10 (10.2%) as livestock medicines, and 14 (14.2%) as human and livestock medicines (Table 3). This demonstrated that more medicinal plants were used to treat human illnesses than livestock diseases. This could be because people may not raise livestock in the area because it is mainly used for growing coffee rather than cereal crops. This discovery exceeds the 29, 63, 72, and 87 plant species reported in Ethiopia by[13, 17,18,19], respectively. In a similar vein, [20, 21] reported 42 and 55 plant species, respectively, in reports from other parts of the world. However, [10, 12, 22] reported that 266, 145, and 189 species of medicinal plants, respectively, were more than the number in the current study area. According to [13], the number of medicinal plants found in various study areas may vary depending on the vegetation type of the area, the number of informants, the time of data collection, and the duration and culture of the area. The local population’s dependence on traditional medicines is demonstrated by the prevalence of herbal remedies for human and animal illnesses in the study area. This dependence could be caused by things like the high price of modern drugs, the difficulty in accessing and using modern healthcare services, and the cultural acceptance of herbal remedies, which have also been noted in other parts of Ethiopia by [23, 24]. The Asteraceae and Solanaceae families were the most prevalent among the medicinal plants studied, with 11 and 8 species represented, respectively. They were followed by Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae, each with 6 species, and Cucurbitaceae and Rubiaceae, both with 5 species. Among these, the Asteraceae family stands out as the most significant contributor to the medicinal plant diversity in the area. This observation aligns with findings from other studies [12, 13, 70] conducted in various regions of Ethiopia, which also highlighted the prominence of medicinal plants within the Solanaceae and Asteraceae families. This trend may be attributed to the shared phytochemicals found in medicinal plants within the same taxonomic groups [25], suggesting that plants in the Asteraceae and Solanaceae families are likely rich in bioactive compounds that enhance their therapeutic properties. Conversely, some researchers [26, 27] argue that Asteraceae is more abundant than other plant families in Ethiopia’s flora regions. This conclusion is also consistent with reports from other countries worldwide [28, 29]. On the other hand, reports of the Amaranthaceae, and Apocynaceae families were common in other studies [30]. In terms of the number of taxa, this may be explained by the greater abundance and distribution of these plant families in the flora region[10, 13]. According to this research, people tend to favor readily available plant species as long as they are safe. In light of this, the study emphasizes the cultural and therapeutic significance of several plant families in traditional medicine practices, highlighting the need to learn more about their therapeutic qualities and put conservation measures in place to safeguard these priceless botanical resources.

Table 3 List of medicinal plants utilized for the treatment of humans and livestock diseases

Habitat of medicinal plants

Of the 98 medicinal plants that were identified, 71 (72.4%) were from the wild, 18 (18.3%) were from home gardens and the wild, 5 (5.1%) were from home gardens (HG) and 4 (4.1%) were from market. In order to treat human ailments, the results show that the locals get more medicinal plants from the wild vegetation than from their home gardens. Inormants stated that wild habitats are being negatively impacted by human activities, and as a result, they are decreasing in size due to the growing population pressure. They tried to grow the plants, but the informants stated that because the plants grew on the side of mountains and in areas with shade, they did not survive the soil types and climate. This is in line with most of Ethiopia’s previous research, including studies by [31,32,33], as well as studies by [34, 35] elsewhere. The prevalence of medicinal plants in their natural habitats makes them vulnerable to various threats, including overexploitation [15, 44], deforestation, and habitat destruction [76]. Therefore, domesticating these plants is crucial for facilitating easier access and ensuring their long-term survival.

Life forms of medicinal plants

The results demonstrated that herbs with 44 species were highest reported palnt habit followed by, shrubs 25 species, tree 21 species, and climber 8 species used to treat illnesses (Fig. 3). The reason for finding a large number of herbal medicinal plant species uses in Yeki district could be related to the favorable climatic conditions such as year round high rain fall that the maintained varieties of plant species. This distribution could be attributed to the greater availability and abundance of herbs in the environment compared to shrubs and trees. Several scholars have also noted that herbs were the most commonly used growth habits for treating various human ailments[12, 13, 33, 36], both locally and globally[30, 37]. This trend could be seen as positive for plant conservation, as herbs have shorter growth cycles and require less space for cultivation compared to shrubd and trees. Thus, the consistent high levels of rainfall throughout the year create ideal conditions for the dominance of herbaceous medicinal plants in the Yeki District, making up more than half of the total species utilized and fostering a wide variety of plant species. In contrast, a larger number of studies have reported the use of shrubs and trees[22, 38,39,40] both locally and globally[35, 41,42,43]. This could be due to their annual availability and their ability to withstand drought and invasive alien species, making them suitable for widespread use[13, 22]. Furthermore, this suggests a variation in medicinal plant utilization due to differences in culture, agroecologies, topographic features, and the ease of access to the species[40]. As a result, the diverse range of medicinal plants, including herbaceous species in some areas and shrubs or trees in others, reflects the rich botanical resources available for medicinal purposes and the importance of preserving traditional knowledge for future generations.

Fig. 3

Life forms of medicinal plants

Parts of medicinal plants used

The study’s findings indicated that 10 specific parts of MPs were identified as the primary constituents utilized for addressing various health problems. The analysis of plant parts, based on the total frequency of citations by informants, demonstrated that leaves were the most commonly used plant part followed by roots, seeds, bark, stems, and latex (Fig. 4). The popularity of leaves, their ease of preparation, and the potency of their phytochemicals could all contribute to this preference. Although it is generally sustainable to use leaves for medicinal purposes, it is crucial to remember that excessive harvesting can weaken a plant and delay its reproductive processes. The findings of several researchers, including[13, 19, 38], as well as those from other countries [44,45,46], support this information. Other research, however, has shown that roots are more common in traditional medicine than other plant parts, stems, and entire plants. The work of several researchers, including[17, 47], and others worldwide, [34, 48, 49], supported this information. This could be since they stay underground even during protracted dry seasons; fresh roots are readily available all year round. However, medicinal plants may be in danger due to overharvesting of roots for therapeutic purposes and environmental damage brought on by agricultural growth. For example, in the Yeki district’s local markets, the root of Echinops kebericho Mesfin was highly prized. Similarly, research from other regions of Ethiopia and the world has shown that excessive use of root parts endangers medicinal plants[13, 34].

Fig. 4

Parts of medicinal plnats used

Traditional medicines preparation and forms used

Different approaches were utilized to create the traditional remedy, taking into account the nature of the ailments, as well as the condition and components of the MPs. The research findings highlighted that informants reported different modes of preparation for medicinal plants. Notably, the majority of plants were prepared by crushing, followed by concoction, powdering, and decoction (Fig. 5). Herbalists in the study area crush plant parts with common ingredients like honey, coffee, salt, and butter using simple methods and locally produced tools like mortars and pestles. For the patient, these additions enhance the remedy’s flavor and nutritional value. The Gamo people of Ethiopia, for example, have been known to use a similar practice in their traditional medicine, adding items like meat, honey, and butter to improve the nutritional value and taste of the remedies they make [14]. For instance, Vernonia amygdalina and Croton macrostachyus leaves are crushed, pounded, and combined when making remedies to treat intestinal parasites. Both locally and internationally, these results are consistent with those of [24, 50,51,52]. In order to protect these priceless resources for coming generations, it is imperative to support conservation initiatives and sustainable harvesting methods. Some of the remedies use a wide range of additives, including bread, milk, water, coffee, food, tea, salt, butter, honey, and sugar. Additives are essential for lowering the strength of the drugs, improving their taste, and easing their side effects. Some informants believe that using and combining some medicinal plants with food is better than taking them alone. For example, dry fruits of the Ficus sur are ground into a powder, mixed with honey, and taken orally to treat malaria. Similar findings were reported by [50, 53, 54]. Informants have reported a variety of skills related to herbal preparation in the data collection process regarding the preparation of medicine for the treatment of human ailments. Among these is the composition of plants, either alone or in combination. Herbalists also combine different species to increase the therapeutic potential of prepared remedies. The findings indicated that the majority of remedies (84.6%) were made from a single plant, while only 15.4% were made from a combination of plant species. These findings align with similar results reported by[51, 54, 55]. Plant parts are used by herbalists to prepare remedies under various circumstances. The result shows that 84.7% were used in fresh form, 9.2% in both forms and 6.1% in dry form. As patients arrive, they prefer to make remedies in a fresh form, and the majority of herbaceous species are typically used fresh. This could be the unimodal rainfall pattern that makes the study area’s plants evergreen throughout the year. Because the beneficial components of these species are retained during the drying process, local communities’ reliance on fresh plant parts can be explained by their perceived efficacy in therapy. However, there is a chance that these priceless medicinal plants will disappear due to this reliance on fresh plant materials[13, 31, 56].

Fig. 5

Mode of medicinal plants preparation

Routes of administration

With a variety of techniques used to maximize the therapeutic benefits of medicinal plants, routes of administration represent yet another aspect of traditional medicine. According to the study, these plants are used in a variety of ways in regional healthcare practices, from external applications to oral ingestion. Among these reports, the most common route of administration was oral, followed by dermal administration, and nasal (Fig. 6). Similar findings worldwide[30, 35, 57] and in Ethiopia [13, 25, 27] indicate that the oral route is the most common method of administering medicinal plant preparations. Both the prevalence of internal illness in the study area and the efficiency of oral and dermal methods in quickly interacting with pathogens’ physiology and boosting curative potency may be responsible for this preference. Because it is easier for patients to apply and has a lower potential for toxicity and absorption, dermal administration is preferred.

Fig. 6

Most cited route of administration

Dosage measurement and additives for medicinal plants

Traditional healers in the study area estimated and fixed the dosage of the medicine using a variety of units of measurement, including finger length for root and stem bark, pinch for powdered plant parts, numbers for leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers, and cup for decoction and infusion for plant parts. Although the healers believe that traditional medicines are effective, the measurements used to calculate dosages are not standardized, and the dosages are based on factors such as age, physical fitness, illness stage, pregnancy, and the presence or absence of any other diseases in addition to the disease being treated. This finding is aligns with the report of [10, 50, 58]. Participants in this study indicated that instances of diarrhea, vomiting, and internal inflammation were typically associated with an overdose of orally administered medications. Findings from similar studies [13, 66, 76] also highlighted the effects of dosage related to oral prescriptions. This could be attributed to the heightened sensitivity of internal body organs in comparison to external tissues. In the current study area, herbal remedies were utilized both with and without additives. Notably, most medicinal plants were used without any additional ingredients. However, certain herbal medicines did incorporate additives, such as water, milk, coffee, honey, meat, bulla locally made from Enset ventricosum, and “Tella” (a local beer). Informants in the current study indicated that additives were considered essential for enhancing the healing efficacy of remedies, aligning with findings from previous research [34, 76] in their respective study areas. Further investigation is required to determine whether the healing potential arises from the additives, the medicinal plants themselves, or the synergistic effects of both components. According to the traditional healers, antidotes are used to counteract any negative effects of medicinal preparations like Phytolacca dodecondra and Croton macrostachyus, which are used to treat rabies and malaria. These customs highlight the need for standardization while also reflecting the richness and cultural diversity of traditional medicine. In order to ensure the safety and effectiveness of traditional healers’ treatments, a regulatory framework that takes into account their distinctive cultural practices and knowledge must be developed. Water is the most frequently used vehicle in the preparation of herbal medicine in the present study as well as other ethnomedicinal studies [13, 24, 76] in Ethiopia. This might be because of the easy access to water compared to other ingredients or solvents in the locality. The herbalist uses visual observations of the patient’s skin and eye color, the areas of the tongue and throat, and body temperature to make a diagnosis. The herbalist also asks the patient about their symptoms. This strategy aligns with the results of various ethnobotanical investigations conducted in various parts of the nation. This finding is in line with[13, 32]. Different techniques were used by traditional healers to prepare medicinal plants and administer them to patients. Drinking, painting, chewing, swallowing, applying to the skin, smelling, smoking, and tying on the afflicted area are some examples. The results demonstrate that drinking, chewing, and swallowing were common ways to treat internal illnesses. To treat skin infections, such as wound, the affected areas were rubbed and painted. Crushing and pounding, decoction, and infusion administered orally were used to treat conditions like intestinal parasites.

Taboos related to medicinal plants in the study area

In the current study, individuals infected with rabies are not permitted to cross rivers while taking traditional medicine. If this rule is violated, it is believed that the medicine may lose its effectiveness, potentially leading to death. Furthermore, some informants confirmed that they do not place medicinal plants, even in their containers, on the ground, as they believe this would diminish the remedy’s potency. Additionally, informants indicated that a person bitten by a snake should not enter an old traditional house or sleep until they have recovered, as local beliefs suggest that sleeping could lead to death. Traditional healers typically collect herbal medicines early in the morning, before washing their hands or eating breakfast, and do so while avoiding contact with humans or animals. Some healers believe that hands unwashed in the morning possess special healing powers. They also mentioned that they hide themselves during this process, both to enhance the efficacy of the remedies and to prevent others from seeing their preparations. Moreover, some traditional healers abstain from sexual intercourse during the days dedicated to harvesting, preparing, and applying herbal remedies. Patients are also advised to refrain from sexual activity while undergoing treatment. Informants noted that Wednesdays and Fridays are considered the most auspicious days for harvesting, preparing, and administering remedies, as violating these practices is believed to render the remedies ineffective. This finding aligns with previous reports [76].

Informant consensus factor

The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to evaluate the consistency of traditional knowledge among informants regarding the use of medicinal plants for various human ailments in the study area. The ailments were categorized into ten distinct groups: dermal, sense organs, digestive, respiratory, circulatory, unclear illnesses, cultural issues, animal and vector-related problems, excretory and reproductive concerns, and musculoskeletal and nervous system disorders (Table 4). This classification was based on multiple criteria, including the type of disease, its causes, the specific location of symptoms, and the signs exhibited by affected individuals. The ICF value for respiratory ailments was found to be the highest at 0.91, followed closely by dermal (0.90) and digestive (0.89) categories. A high ICF value indicates a strong agreement among informants regarding the effectiveness of certain medicinal plants for treating specific ailments. Conversely, a low ICF value may suggest limited collaboration among indigenous healers in sharing their knowledge of medicinal plants. This lack of interaction could be attributed to geographical distance or a desire among healers to protect their knowledge from unauthorized use. Additionally, traditional healers may utilize different species of medicinal plants in varying contexts to address the same medical conditions. The study found that residents possessed crucial knowledge about medicinal plants for treating common illnesses. While some plants were considered less effective than others, this does not necessarily imply they were ineffective; rather, it reflects that only a limited number of useful species were shared among selected healers, indicating potential secrecy in their practices. These findings are consistent with previous studies [13, 16, 59, 60].

Table 4 Informant consensus factor values of medicinal plants

Fidelity level

The fidelity level (FL) of medicinal plants can be utilized to evaluate their effectiveness in treating specific ailments. This study identified several medicinal plants with high FL values for addressing various health issues. For instance, Aloe kefaensis Gilbert Sebsebe and Zingiber officinale Rosc. were found to be particularly effective in treating ringworm and intestinal problems, respectively (Table 5). These findings indicate that plants with elevated FL values should be prioritized for conservation, management, and sustainable use, following a thorough assessment of their bioactivities. Additionally, a lower FL suggests that more informants reported the use of certain medicinal plants compared to those with higher FL values. For example, Stephania abyssinica Dillon and A. Rich. exhibited a low FL when used for treating jaundice. These results align with previous studies [61, 62]. Therefore, it is crucial for the Ministry of Health to acknowledge these plants and the associated indigenous knowledge to promote sustainable health care across the country.

Table 5 Fidelity levels of most cited medicinal plants

Preference ranking of medicinal plants for treatment of intestinal parasites

The results of a preference ranking conducted by ten key informants on five medicinal plants used for treating intestinal parasites revealed that Vernonia amygdalina Del. was the most favored, receiving the top rank (1st) for its effectiveness against the disease, followed by Peponium vogelii (Hook.f) Engl. in second place. The other medicinal plants were ranked from third to fifth, as shown in Table 6. Informants assigned the highest score (number 5) to the plant they considered most effective and the lowest score (number 1) to the least effective species. Supporting this finding, previous ethnomedicinal studies [13, 24] have documented the traditional use of Vernonia amygdalina Del. for treating intestinal parasites in various regions of Ethiopia. Additionally, this plant has been reported to address other health issues, including gastritis [12], malaria [13], amoebiasis [23], stomachaches [19], and wounds [16] throughout the country. This underscores its significant role in primary health care for many communities in Ethiopia. The results indicate that the local population’s preferences for medicinal plants are shaped by their knowledge of which plants are most effective for treating specific ailments.

Table 6 Preference ranking of TMPs reported for treating Intestinal parasites

Additional uses of medicinal plants in the study area

The medicinal plants in the study area were used by the local residents for a variety of purposes beyond their medicinal uses, such as building, medicine, material culture, charcoal production, fencing, shade, firewood, food, and agricultural tools. Using the direct matrix ranking (DMR) results on five multipurpose MPs used to treat various ailments, it was possible to identify which multipurpose plants are more stressed than other species in the region, as well as the specific factors endangering the plants (Table 7). According to the findings, the most preferred multipurpose plant species in the Yeki district were Prunus africana and Eucalyptus globulus Labill, while Cordia africana Lam. was ranked as the most threatened. In addition to their medicinal value, these plants were also used for non-medical purposes. Top-ranked species, such as Cordia africana Lam., are therefore expected to be seriously threatened in the near future, requiring cooperative conservation efforts to save these multipurpose plant species. The results of [13, 63,64,65] all showed that Cordia africana Lam. was a multipurpose medicinal plant in their respective fields of study, which is consistent with this finding. On the other hand, Croton macrostachyus Del. was found to be the most versatile plant species in the reports of [17, 66]. Species of marketable medicinal plants that are mainly prized for their therapeutic qualities might be more vulnerable. The informant claims that because of the high market demand for their roots, Echinops kebericho Mesfin is noticeably rare in the Yeki district. The research published by[12, 13, 67, 68] is in line with this finding. These results thus imply that the loss of multipurpose medicinal plants leads to the loss of associated indigenous knowledge, increasing the incidence of human and livestock health problems inYeki district. Therefore, these multipurpose medicinal plants need to be used wisely and given appropriate conservation considerations in the current study area and the country as a whole.

Table 7 Direct matrix ranking score of five TMPs

Comparison of knowledge between key and general informants

R software was used to perform a t-test in order to investigate the difference in TMPK between key and general informants. There was a statistically significant difference in MPK between these two groups, according to the obtained t-test results (t = 10.6, P < 0.05). Compared to general informants (M = 2.6, SD = 1.4), key informants showed a significantly higher average MPK score (M = 5.6, SD = 1.5) (Table 8). The findings of [13, 24, 63, 69] are consistent with this finding. This finding implies that, in comparison with general informants, key informants are perceived to use traditional knowledge more frequently, most likely as a result of both cultural influences and their prolonged, intensive engagement with plant resources. There are multiple implications associated with the significant disparity in knowledge between key informants and general informants. In the field of medicinal plant knowledge, it first emphasizes how crucial it is to identify and capitalize on the knowledge of important informants. Key informants can be extremely helpful in maintaining traditional medicinal plant knowledge and practices, as well as in advancing sustainable harvesting and cultivation techniques. The huge knowledge gap also highlights the necessity of focused educational and capacity-building programs aimed at improving general informants’ comprehension of medicinal plants. By providing the general public with pertinent information and abilities, we can promote the sustainable use of medicinal plants and develop a greater understanding of conventional healing methods.

Table 8 Medicinal plants knowledge among informant groups (t-test)

Comparison of knowledge between gender

Using R software, a t-test was performed to examine the difference in MPK between male and female informants. There was a statistically significant difference in MPK between the two genders, according to the t-test results (t = 3.2, P < 0.05). In particular, the mean MPK score of male informants was significantly higher (M = 3.8, SD = 1.9) than that of female informants (M = 2.7, SD = 1.4) (Table 8). This result is consistent with the findings of [13, 63, 70, 71]. In contrast to this finding, [72] discovered that women know more about MPs than men do. Furthermore, according to other researchers, males and females know the same amount about MPs [55, 69]. These discrepancies could result from historical, social, or cultural variations in MPK proficiency between the sexes. An additional explanation could be that men were more likely to spend time in fields or forests, which are habitats for wild MPs. In addition, other researchers [38, 70] have observed that sons, not daughters, inherit medical knowledge. But it’s vital to remember that this belief isn’t always true. When it comes to traveling to far-off places and gathering plant species, many women are just as capable as men. Indeed, historically, women have played important roles in hunting and gathering in many cultures. As a result, it is critical to dispel the myth that only men can contribute to the collection of plant species and to recognize the roles played by both sexes. In order to create programs and policies that empower female informants and support gender-inclusive approaches to resource management and traditional medicine, it is imperative that the factors causing this inequality be further investigated.

Comparison of knowledge between education level

A t-test was performed using R software to investigate the differences in medicinal plant knowledge (MPK) among informants according to their educational backgrounds. The MPK differences between the two groups were statistically significant, according to the results (t = 5.5, P < 0.05). Furthermore, Table 8 shows that the mean MPK score of illiterate informants was significantly higher (M = 3.9, SD = 2.0) than that of literate informants (M = 2.2, SD = 1.5). This implies that variation in the knowledge and comprehension of medicinal plants among educational backgrounds may result from the influence of formal education on the acquisition and dissemination of traditional medicinal knowledge. This result is in line with earlier research carried out across the nation[55, 63, 72]. Additionally, fewer people with advanced degrees may be knowledgeable about medicinal plants due to a lack of exposure to traditional practices in formal educational settings, particularly in higher education institutions. People’s awareness of medicinal plants at various educational levels is also influenced by cultural factors, such as the passing down of traditional knowledge within particular communities. Higher educated individuals may become ignorant of traditional medical practices as a result of the curriculum’s emphasis on Western medicine. Therefore, the study’s conclusions have important ramifications for public health and education policies, emphasizing the necessity of focused interventions to close the knowledge gap about medicinal plants between people with different educational backgrounds. To support a more integrated approach to health care, traditional medical knowledge must be incorporated into formal education and healthcare systems.

Comparison of knowledge among different age groups

Age group (young, middle, and elder) significantly affected TMPK scores, according to an ANOVA in R (F = 33.3, p < 0.05). Age influenced disparities in TMPK, as evidenced by the significantly higher variance between age groups (SS = 203, MS = 101.5) than within-groups variance (SS = 387.5, MS = 3.0) (Table 9). The old group had significantly higher mean scores (M = 4.5, SD = 2.1, p < 0.05) than the middle group (M = 3.1, SD = 1.7, p < 0.05) and the young group (M = 1.4, SD = 1.0, p < 0.05), according to additional analysis using Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests. This implies that traditional knowledge’s declining perceived value across generations may be threatened. According to research from other nations [29] and a number of authors [13, 22, 24], older people are more likely than younger people to report using medicinal plants. This study supports these findings. The elders’ longstanding knowledge of using local medicinal plants to treat a variety of illnesses in traditional ways may be the cause of this disparity, whereas younger generations are becoming less interested in traditional practices as a result of growing influences from modernization and globalization. Local communities have noticed that younger people are more interested in modern education and less likely to learn about ethnomedicinal knowledge, which causes them to migrate for different jobs. Local ethnobotanical knowledge and indigenous knowledge are being lost as a result of this phenomenon.

Table 9 Age categories with informant knowledge (One way ANOVA)

Age groups and MPk are positively correlated, as shown by the correlation coefficient of 0.75 (Fig. 7). This suggests that as informants get older, their level of MP knowledge also rises. This result is consistent with the findings of [13, 22, 63]. Moreover, the results of the regression analysis showed that, at a significance level of p < 0.05, the β0 and β1 estimates were -0.95 and 0.1, respectively. Age categories and MPk are positively correlated, according to the β1 estimate, which means that for every increase in age category, the projected value of MPK increases by 0.1 (Fig. 8). These findings therefore have significant ramifications for the transmission and preservation of TMPK, emphasizing the necessity of supporting and giving priority to older generations as information repositories.

Fig. 7

Correlation model of informant age category

Fig. 8

Regression model of informant age category

Comparative analysis of medicinal plants species in yeki and other areas of ethiopia

This section seeks to offer a thorough comparison of our ethnobotanical findings from Yeki, Ethiopia, with existing research on medicinal plants across various regions of the country. By situating our results within the larger context of Ethiopian ethnobotany, we aim to enhance our understanding of their significance and implications for local healthcare practices and biodiversity conservation. Ethiopia boasts a rich array of medicinal plants, reflecting its diverse climatic zones and cultural traditions. Numerous ethnobotanical studies have documented the traditional uses of plants in different communities, such as the study conducted by [13], which identified 81 medicinal plants in the Guraferda district of Southwestern Ethiopia, and another study [8] that recorded 244 medicinal plants utilized by the Gurage people. Research in the Asagirt district of northeastern Ethiopia documented 103 medicinal plant species used by locals to treat ailments such as malaria, intestinal parasites, and reproductive disorders, highlighting the value of traditional knowledge [24]. Additionally, [59] conducted a comparative study that underscores the role of local knowledge in biodiversity conservation. To enable a clear comparison of our findings with previous research, we adopted a systematic framework that includes species identification, traditional uses, and cultural context.

Our study identified 98 medicinal plant species used by the local community in Yeki, aligning with earlier research that documented 71 and 78 species in studies conducted by [47] and [62]. The traditional applications of various medicinal plants in Yeki mirror patterns observed in other regions. For example, Vernonia amygdalina Del. is used to treat intestinal parasites, aligning with findings from [47], while Phytolacca dodecandra is employed for rabies, similar to its use among the Sekela district population as noted by [51]. Additionally, we observed some unique applications, such as Pycnostachys abyssinica Fresen, locally known as Yearo, which is used for typhoid by placing the leaves on the body. This highlights the significance of local knowledge in understanding ethnomedicine in Ethiopia. The Jaccard’s Similarity Index (JSI) was employed to assess cultural similarities among different ethnic communities based on shared plant species and their medicinal uses. Our comparative analysis reveals both similarities and differences between our findings and those of previous studies. The traditional medicinal uses of plants listed in Table 3 were compared with 27 published ethnomedicinal documents at both regional and national levels. The highest JSI of 17% was recorded in a study conducted in the Guraferda district of Southwest Ethiopia [13], followed closely by the Dalle district of South Central Ethiopia with a JSI of 16% [47], and the Ameya district of Southwest Ethiopia with a JSI of 15% [62]. Additionally, northern Ethiopian districts such as West Gojam (JSI = 14%) [50] and Ensaro (JSI = 13%) [59] also exhibited notable JSI values (Table 10). Overall, the JSI demonstrated a gradual decrease from the southwestern, south-central, and southeastern regions to the western, northern, northwestern, and northeastern parts of the country.

Table 10 Jaccard similarity index comparing the current study with earlier studies conducted in Ethiopia

The high Jaccard’s Similarity Index (JSI) observed between the current study and the Guraferda district [13] can be attributed to the close geographical proximity of these neighboring districts. Similarities with other regions in southwestern, south-central, and southeastern Ethiopia can be explained by factors such as geography, cultural practices, and vegetation types [40, 77, 78]. The gradual decline in JSI from southern to northern areas likely reflects the impact of distance and geographical barriers that hinder the exchange of information regarding the use of ethnomedicinal plants [40, 77, 79]. These findings suggest that the use of traditional medicinal plants tends to be more uniform in regions that are geographically close and culturally similar, while diversity increases with greater distances and obstacles. This underscores the importance of considering regional and cultural factors when examining traditional plant-based healthcare practices. The shared use of specific species highlights a common cultural heritage surrounding traditional medicine in Ethiopia, whereas the unique practices identified in Yeki indicate localized knowledge that merits further exploration. This chapter illustrates that while there is a robust foundation of shared knowledge regarding medicinal plants across Ethiopia, regional variations reflect adaptations to local environmental conditions and cultural customs. The insights gained from this comparative analysis point to several avenues for future research, including biodiversity conservation understanding how local practices contribute to the preservation of medicinal plant species; phytochemical studies aimed at investigating the bioactive compounds present in uniquely utilized species from Yeki; and documentation of cultural heritage to safeguard local knowledge systems related to ethnomedicine.

Implications of medicinal plant use in Yeki district, Southwest Ethiopia

The use of medicinal plants in Yeki district, Southwest Ethiopia, has important implications for environmental sustainability, food security, and public health. This chapter explores the insights gained from the data on medicinal plants, highlighting their contributions to the local ecosystem, enhancement of food security, and their vital role in public health. The diverse range of medicinal plants in Yeki reflects the area’s ecological richness. The local community’s reliance on these native plants plays a vital role in conserving biodiversity. Traditional knowledge promotes sustainable harvesting practices, preventing overexploitation. Furthermore, many medicinal plants are crucial for habitat restoration, aiding in soil stabilization and offering shelter to various wildlife animals, thus enhancing overall ecosystem health. Medicinal plants also deliver crucial ecosystem services for the community. They attract pollinators, which are vital for both wild and cultivated plant productivity, and improve soil health through processes like nitrogen fixation and organic matter enhancement. In terms of food security, numerous medicinal plants offer nutritional benefits that can significantly enrich local diets. Many of these plants have edible parts, such as leaves and seeds, which can supplement nutrition, particularly in areas with limited food diversity. Traditional knowledge regarding the preparation and consumption of these plants can play a crucial role in addressing malnutrition and promoting dietary diversity. Some examples of medicinal plants that are also used as food include Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn., Solanum americanum Mill., Manihot esculenta Cranz., Cordia africana Lam., Ficus sur Forssk., and Moringa stenopetala L. Economically, selling medicinal plants like Echinops kebericho Mesfin provides income opportunities for local communities, helping families facing food insecurity acquire essential goods. Promoting sustainable harvesting and cultivation of these plants can lead to resilient livelihoods, reducing reliance on external food sources.

Medicinal plants are a key healthcare resource for many communities in Yeki, offering an affordable and accessible alternative for treating common ailments, especially in rural areas with limited modern healthcare facilities. Their deep-rooted cultural significance fosters greater acceptance and trust among community members than modern pharmaceuticals. The study highlights the value of traditional knowledge in promoting health, suggesting that local insights into the use and preparation of medicinal plants should be incorporated into health education programs, empowering communities to effectively utilize these resources. Documenting traditional uses also establishes a foundation for further research into the pharmacological properties of these plants, which could lead to the development of new medicines. However, challenges remain. Increased demand for certain medicinal species may lead to overharvesting, jeopardizing their availability and biodiversity. Additionally, climate change could affect the distribution and growth of these plants, impacting accessibility. Thus, integrating traditional medicine with modern healthcare practices is essential for creating comprehensive health strategies. In conclusion, the data collected on medicinal plants in Yeki district reveal their diverse roles in supporting environmental sustainability, enhancing food security, and promoting public health. Recognizing and valuing these contributions can help stakeholders formulate strategies that leverage traditional knowledge while ensuring biodiversity conservation and enhancing the well-being of local communities. Future initiatives should focus on sustainable practices, community education, and collaborative research to maximize the benefits of these invaluable natural resources.

Transfer of traditional medicinal knowledge

The transmission of ancestral knowledge regarding the use of medicinal plants in the research area primarily relies on oral communication, as there are no written records available for reference. Most participants share this knowledge within their families, with eldest sons often serving as the primary custodians of this information. A few individuals also convey traditional insights to trusted neighbors and relatives. These observations align with findings from previous studies [12, 13]. Currently, the older generations in the Yeki district possess significant indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants; however, this knowledge is at risk of extinction as these knowledgeable elders pass away. Many sources indicate that factors such as the rise of modern medicine, improvements in education, religious influences, and societal modernization have contributed to a decline in indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in the region. A notable concern identified in the study area is that elderly traditional healers often choose to keep their knowledge confidential, fearing that sharing it may weaken the healing properties of the plants and reduce their economic potential. Additionally, local indigenous healers, known as Dengo or Tenquay (Magician), recognize the importance of safeguarding their wisdom and rituals through secrecy. This observation is supported by findings from several other studies [10, 64]. Moreover, research indicates that younger individuals tend to be hesitant to engage with and adopt traditional medicinal practices. This trend poses a significant risk of losing critical knowledge, as older practitioners may pass away without passing on their expertise. To mitigate this risk, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive database cataloging information about medicinal plants and their various applications. Such a resource should be easily accessible online or in libraries to promote public access. Furthermore, the transfer of this knowledge to younger generations can be encouraged through structured educational programs or mentorship opportunities with experienced traditional healers. Raising public awareness about the importance of traditional knowledge is also vital and can be effectively achieved through educational outreach and media campaigns.

Threats and conservation practices of medicinal plants

The findings from the ethnobotanical survey indicated that the primary threat to medicinal plants in the study area was deforestation, which constituted 30.5% of all reported threats. Agricultural expansion followed as the second most significant threat, accounting for 16.5%. Other identified threats included material culture (14.5%), overharvesting (11.3%), invasive alien species (7.6%), charcoal production (6.2%), firewood collection (5.3%), and modernization (4.3%), and construction activities (3.8%). According to the study’s participants, MPs are seriously threatened by the fast spread of IAS in the Yeki District, including Parthenium hysterophorus and Lantana camara. These IAS are dangerous because they can quickly proliferate and take over, changing the ecosystem when they are introduced. Their ability to outcompete native species upsets the natural equilibrium and puts the native plants at risk of going extinct[52, 73, 74]. This result is consistent with the (13) report. This has been identified as one of the main causes of herbaceous MPs’ decline. Additionally, Prosopis juliflora has been identified by other researchers as another IAS that could endanger MPs [66]. The inhabitants of the study area engage in the harvesting of medicinal plants to meet various livelihood requirements, including the construction of shelters for themselves and their livestock, the collection of firewood, food provision, market sales, fodder, fencing, material culture, and charcoal production. Several researchers [13, 16, 23, 24, 76] have documented the destruction of medicinal plants for various purposes in different regions of Ethiopia. Conversely, other studies [12, 13, 36, 43, 76] have identified agricultural expansion as the primary threat to medicinal plants in their respective areas of investigation. In the current study, overgrazing was also identified as a significant threat to these plants. This issue may be associated with the mixed agricultural practices of the local population, which include both livestock rearing and crop cultivation. In this context, farmers often harvest certain medicinal plants for their cattle in addition to allowing them to graze freely. The overexploitation of these plants for multiple uses has been recognized as a contributing factor to their current decline, aligning with previous findings [12, 24, 40, 47] within the country. In the current research area, for instance, Echinops kebericho Mesfin was harvested by retailers for financial gain in the local market. If this practice persists over the years, it may result in the decline and extinction of various plant species. Furthermore, the application of herbicides and the removal of medicinal plants, regarded as weeds, have been observed in agricultural regions, paralleling findings in Guraferda district, southwestern Ethiopia [13]. This situation may stem from the local community’s limited awareness regarding the ecological, economic, and health advantages of medicinal plants. Additionally, issues such as wildfires, destruction by animals, and attacks from insects or fungi on medicinal plants have been reported in the area. This situation necessitates immediate conservation efforts to safeguard the availability of medicinal plants both in the study area and throughout the nation. Among the 98 medicinal plant species documented, a significant majority, 71 species (72.4%), were found to be unprotected in the study area.

Local communities cultivated certain medicinal plant species for various purposes, including food, spices, fruit, fencing, shade, and cash crops. Additionally, traditional healers preserved some species for medicinal use, while a few were maintained by community members near home gardens or farmland for diverse functions such as construction, timber, live fencing, shade, land demarcation, and hanging beehives. In the study area, conservation practices for medicinal plant resources were notably limited. Similar findings have been reported in other regions of Ethiopia [12, 13, 16, 34, 76], indicating a widespread lack of effective conservation efforts for medicinal plants. This situation may be attributed to the fact that most medicinal plants in the country are sourced from wild natural vegetation [55, 61]. Nonetheless, some traditional healers and local community members have begun to take small steps toward conserving medicinal plants in the current study area. For instance, several medicinal plants that were originally wild, such as Moringa stenopetala L., Ruta chalepensis L., Aloe kefaensis Gilbert Sebsebe, Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak., Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Ex Nees) T. Anders., Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Artemisia abyssinica Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich., Ocimum gratissimum L., Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman, Rumex nepalensis Spreng., Pycnostachys abyssinica Fresen., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, have been observed being cultivated and protected in the gardens of traditional healers for medicinal purposes. This practice aligns with previous findings reported in various regions of Ethiopia [13, 70, 76]. Recently, local administrative leaders and development agents have taken legal steps to prevent the cutting of trees, particularly riverine species like Ficus sur Forssk., to protect both the plants and the rivers. Additionally, local residents have implemented certain indigenous conservation practices, safeguarding specific plants near their homes, on agricultural land, as live fences, and as trees for hanging beehives. Trees such as Ficus ovata Vahl, Croton macrostachyus Del., Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm, and Ehretia cymosa Thonn. are often passed down from father to son, akin to a form of permanent wealth in the area. Similar indigenous conservation methods for valuable medicinal plant species have been documented in previous studies conducted in the Metekel zone and Asagirt district of northern Ethiopia [24, 76]. However, the findings also suggest that the local population has not been actively engaged in community-based conservation initiatives, which is consistent with other studies [13, 51, 75]. Therefore, it is essential to encourage the conservation habits of local communities and implement both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies for the sustainable use of medicinal plant resources while preserving the associated indigenous knowledge across the country.

Limitation of the study

The research encountered several challenges, including communication barriers and difficulties in data interpretation due to language differences, a limited sample size particularly among females that may not accurately reflect the population, non-standardized dosage measures, and obstacles in accessing remote communities. Additionally, there is a concern about the potential loss of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) resulting from rapid social and environmental changes, as well as ethical issues surrounding intellectual property rights and informed consent. Despite these challenges affecting the research process, the study achieved its objectives by implementing alternative strategies, such as encouraging informants to participate by consent form, using translators, and navigating transportation obstacles by walking or renting horses and motorcycles. As a result, future researchers could consider investigating phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial testing of this important phytomedicine within the study area.

Conclusions and recommendations

The traditional knowledge surrounding medicinal plants within the study area has been systematically recorded for future research, thereby contributing significantly to the existing body of knowledge regarding medicinal flora in the nation. This documentation underscores the vital role that traditional medicine plays in the primary healthcare framework. Analysis of the informants’ knowledge reveals notable disparities (P < 0.05); specifically, males exhibit a greater understanding than females, older individuals possess more knowledge than their younger counterparts, and those who are illiterate show a higher level of knowledge compared to literate individuals. The research identified 98 species of traditional medicinal plants utilized for addressing 36 human ailments and 16 conditions affecting livestock. The study area is abundant in potential medicinal plant diversity and the associated indigenous knowledge, which can be leveraged to address various health issues in both humans and domestic animals. For instance, traditional remedies for human diseases such as malaria, typhoid, typhus, intestinal parasites, rabies, tapeworm infections, and wounds were documented in the Yeki district. Similarly, traditional practitioners treated livestock ailments including rabies, wounds, diarrhea, eye diseases, tick infestations, febrile illnesses, and leech infestations. The medicinal plant species in the study area are significantly threatened by human activities, primarily due to deforestation for agricultural expansion, the introduction of invasive alien species, construction, and the collection of firewood and charcoal, among other factors. Conservation efforts for these medicinal plants are notably insufficient, although some traditional healers and community members have demonstrated certain conservation practices. Consequently, it is imperative for the local community and the natural resource management office in the Yeki district to implement immediate conservation strategies, effective management, and sustainable use of medicinal plants to ensure their health benefits are preserved for future generations, along with the associated indigenous knowledge. Additionally, it is crucial for relevant organizations, such as the health office in Yeki district, Mizan-Tepi University, and the Ethiopian Public Health Institute, to formally recognize and support traditional healers to encourage the preservation of their indigenous knowledge. Furthermore, the medicinal plants documented should undergo validation through experimental research conducted by various institutions in the country to facilitate the integration of traditional medicine with modern healthcare systems and enhance healthcare services. To combat the concerning decline in medicinal plant species, it is vital to prioritize conservation initiatives and promote both in situ and ex situ methods that bolster the efforts of traditional healers. Furthermore, enhancing public awareness is essential to motivate local communities to effectively manage and sustainably utilize these important medicinal plant resources.