Ethnobotanical knowledge and ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources by urban communities of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: a novel urban ethnobotanical approach

Abstract

Study Background

Ethnobotanical knowledge of plants in rural and remote areas is more common in Pakistan than in urban areas. This study was carried out to find the indigenous knowledge of plants in anthropogenically disturbed urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Materials and methods

Eight visits (Two per season) were carried out from March 2023 to March 2024. The semi- structured questionnaire was administered to informants and analyzed using informant consensus factor (ICF), use values (UV), fidelity level (FL%), average direct matrix ranking (ADMR), and Jaccard index (JI).

Results

A total of 138 plant species belonging to 54 families, Asteraceae with the highest number of plant species (14) were recorded from 101 informants. Herbs were the dominant plant species (75%) and leaves were the most used parts (43%). The ICF value of 0.97 indicated a high consensus among informants regarding the use of plants for kidney disorders. The highest UV value of 0.78 showed a maximum use of the plant for ear diseases. The highest FL% of 91.8 indicated the highest use of A. sativum for alopecia. For plant use in medicinal purposes, the ADMR ranking came in first. JI values showed that 73 plant species were common in all the three urban areas.

Conclusions

The study area was highly disturbed by anthropogenic activities. However, it still contains a rich diversity of plant resources. Furthermore, investigation is required for the conservation and utilization of plant resources, discovery of novel drugs and climate resilience for the welfare of mankind.

Introduction

Ethnobotanical studies emphasize the intricate relationship that exists between the local inhabitants and the plant species found in their surrounding environment, encompassing customs, rituals, etiquettes, and cultural values related to various applications [1]. These research studies are crucial for emphasizing the usefulness of native plant species, such as for the development of new medications and health-based products. Native plants have great importance for the welfare and health improvement of poor communities globally [2]. Globally, 35,000–70,000 (14%-28%) plant species are used for medicinal purpose. Plant-based medicines are still used by 60–80% of the population in developing countries due to their economic and safety benefits compared to allopathic therapy, which is often inaccessible [3]. Herbal treatments are widely utilized in industrialized countries, with 30–50% of the population in China, 40–50% in Germany, 48% in Australia, 42% in the USA, and 49% in France utilizing them for additional health care [4]. Approximately 25% of contemporary allopathic medications are derived from plants or synthetic equivalents of substances obtained from medicinal plants [5, 6].

Plant-based medications are effective and typically have fewer negative effects and this could be best for local inhabitants. Many local inhabitants including elders’ people, local healers, and local herbal sellers (Pansari) still hold onto their traditional knowledge of therapeutic plants and the use of crude drugs [7, 8]. This kind of traditional knowledge is passed down through the generations from their ancestors to their precedents [9]. Fascinating similarities and differences in traditional knowledge and practices between two distinct cultural groups residing in the same ecological region can help us understand how cultural reflection can alter people's perspectives about the environment and influence how humans interact with ecosystem resources [10]. Nonetheless, conventional wisdom on plant species is gradually dwindling worldwide [1]. This knowledge is typically passed down orally to the next generation by hakims (traditional healers) and the elderly [11,12,13], Hence, there is a real risk of knowledge loss as a result of the development of the contemporary healthcare system, the speed at which cities are growing, and the strained relationships between the younger and older generations [14]. It is crucial to record traditional ethnomedical knowledge since it could lead to the creation of novel medications. Additionally, this might support the preservation of native culture and the management of natural resources.

Pakistan, with its diverse environment, climate, and soil types, is home to over 6,000 wild plant species, many of which are aromatic and medicinal [15]. Among these, 400–600 species are used for medicinal purposes. Notably, 80% of this medicinal flora is found only in Azad Kashmir and Northwestern Pakistan [16]. Various ethnobotanical studies have previously documented traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and herbal recipes in remote areas of Pakistan [17,18,19,20,21,22]. However, urban areas in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have not been thoroughly investigated from an ethnobotanical viewpoint, mainly due to challenges such as inaccessibility, security threats, and cultural and religious barriers that limit research opportunities to gather ethnobotanical information.

We hypothesize that ethnobotanical knowledge in urban areas differs significantly from that in other parts of Pakistan due to improved access to allopathic medications. Given the high demand and cost of allopathic drugs, they may be less accessible to urban communities; thus, our study aims to provide alternatives for this issue. The goal of this study is to document indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used for primary healthcare, with a focus on plant species traditionally used by urban communities. The specific objective is to investigate the ethnobotanical knowledge and ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources by urban communities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. This study is novel as it explores ethnobotany in urban settings, where literature on the subject is scarce, and it aims to identify previously unreported ethnobotanical uses of plants. Majority of the ethnobotanical studies have focused on rural areas due to the limited access to modern medicines.

Materials and methods

Area description

Study areas consisted of urban areas of District Bannu, Kohat, and Peshawar of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. District Bannu is located at latitude 32° 59′ 7" (North) and longitude 70° 36′ 9" (East), comprising a total area of 1231 km² with 1,169,981 inhabitants (male 53.21%: female 46.79%). It is situated at an elevation of 355.20 m (1165.35 feet) with humid subtropical climate. 99% of the inhabitants are Muslims and 1% non-muslims (Christian, Hindu and others). The local language of the inhabitants in district Bannu was Banuchi (Local dialect of Pashto language). Majority of the inhabitants residing in district Bannu were banuchi (Sub tribe of Pashtuns).

District Kohat is located at latitude 33° 19′ 60"(North) and longitude 71° 09′ 60" (East), comprised a total area of 2547 km² with 109,381 inhabitants (male 51.37%: female 48.63%). It is situated at an elevation of 436.30 m (1431.43 feet) with the arid to semi-arid climate. 98% of the inhabitants are Muslims and 2% non-muslims (Christian, Hindu and others). The local language of the district Kohat inhabitants was hindko and Pashto (afridi and orkzai dialect of Pashto language). Majority of the inhabitants residing district Kohat were afridi, bangash and paracha (Sub tribe of Pashtuns).

District Peshawar is located at latitude 34°0′28"(North) and longitude 71°34′42" (East), comprised a total area of 1261 km² with 2,545,760 inhabitants (male 47.57%: female 52.43%). It is situated at an elevation of 360 m (1160.11 feet) with the sub –tropical climate with hot summers and mild winters. 97% of the inhabitants are Muslims and 3% non-muslims (Christian, Hindu, Sikh and others). The local language of the district Peshawar inhabitants was hindko and pashto (Peshawari dialect of Pashto language). Abbas et al. [23] reported that the majority of the informants were pashto speaker belong to four different communities including Christians, Shia, Sunni and Sikh in district Kurram of northwest Pakistan.

Majority of the inhabitants residing in district Peshawar were afridi, peshawari and muhajirs (Sub tribes of Pashtuns). A geographical map of the study area is given in (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Map of the study sites

Informant selection

General information about the study area was collected before plant collection and their traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge and plant collection were done in four seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and winter) from March 2023 to March 2024 in eight visits. The informants’ selection was based on random sampling techniques. The interview process entailed two sections. The first section involved collecting basic data such as the respondent's name, age, gender, place of birth, and educational attainment. In the second section, a semi-structured questionnaire consisting of six questions was administered (1) Did the informants use medicinal plants to treat or prevent diseases? (2) If yes, which diseases did the plant treat or prevent? (3) How were the plants used, including which parts were used, preparation techniques, and application methods excluding medicinal purpose? (4) Where did the plants come from? (5) How did the interviewee acquire this knowledge? (6) Is there anything else the interviewee would like to add? Majority of male informants (64%) were interviewed due to easily approach and local rituals. Informants were selected based on age, knowledge about plants, and general and traditional uses. The age ranged from 20 to 80 years, education from uneducated to postgraduate, and occupation from housewife to farming. Informants were interviewed in their mother tongue (Pashto) and the aims and objectives of the questionnaire were detailed and discussed with them.

Plant collection, identification, and preservation

Plant species were collected from the study area. During plant collection, plant conservation guidelines were followed. Herbs were collected as a whole plant, while branches with flowers were collected from trees and shrubs. They were shade-dried and mounted on herbarium sheets. They were identified by a taxonomist at the Department of Botany, Kohat University of Science and Technology, and voucher specimens were deposited at herbarium. Their botanical names were cross-checked with the online flora of Pakistan (www.eFloras.org) for validation.

Information quality assurance and validation

All the informants were three times contacted for information validation and accuracy. Only the study-relevant information was collected from informants and subjected to further data analysis. Missing and irrelevant information about plant species was skipped. Moreover, the researcher and co-author were skilled in the ethnobotanical knowledge of plants to ensure data quality and accuracy.

Ethnobotanical data collection and interpretation

Ethnobotanical data were collected from informants through a semi-structured questionnaire and interpreted using demographic features, informant consensus factor, use values, fidelity level %, average direct matrix ranking, and Jaccard index.

Demographic features

A total of 101 informants were interviewed as resource persons for plant use data collection. There were 64 male and 37 female respondents. Their age ranged from 20 to 80 years. Male respondent's numbers were more as compared to female due to more engagement with traditional knowledge and profession of farming. Details of informants are given in (Table 1).

Table 1 Demographic features of informants from study area

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor was determined by calculating the number of plant species used for a particular disease divided by the number of total use reports by local inhabitants [24].

ICF = Nt/Nur, where ICF is the Informant consensus factor, Nt is the number of plant species used for a particular disease, and Nur is the use reports.

Use values (UV)

Use values of plant species for a particular purpose were determined by dividing the total number of uses of plants by the total number of reported plant species [25].

UV = NU/n, where NU is used in reports and n is the total number of plant species.

Fidelity level (FL%)

Fidelity level was used to determine the particular use of plant species for a particular purpose. It was calculated by using the following formulae adopted by [26].

FL% = nr/n × 100 where np = number of primary respondent, and n = total number of local inhabitants.

Average direct matrix ranking (ADMR)

Average direct matrix ranking was used to find the multipurpose use of plants and evaluated by following the method of Cotton [27]. Fifteen key local inhabitants (10 men, 5 women) were selected on the base of their long experience and vast knowledge of plants as described by Yineger et al. [28].

Jaccard index

The Jaccard index was used to find the similarity of plant species among the three ecological different study areas. It was calculated by the following equation described by [29].

JI $=\frac{SA1 \, \cap \, SA2}{SA1 \, U \, SA2}$ Where JI is the Jaccard index, SA1 is study area 1 and SA2 is study area 2. The results were compared with previous literature ([30,31,32,33] etc.) to find the novelty of the study.

Statistical analysis

All the data were taken in three times and spss software (v.16) was used for data analysis.

Results and discussion

Plant species diversity and life forms

In the study area, 138 plant species representing 120 genera and 54 families were collected. Botanical names, family names, life forms, habitats, parts used, and ethnobotanical uses of these plant species were elucidated in (Table 2). Asteraceae was the dominant family with the highest number of plant species (14), followed by Fabaceae (12), Solanaceae (10), Poaceae (9), Amaranthaceae (7), Brassicaceae (5), Cucurbitaceae (5), Lamiaceae (5), Apiaceae (4), Euphorbiaceae (4), Apocynaceae (3), Malvaceae (3), Myrataceae (3), Polygonaceae (3), Rhamnaceae (3), Rosaceae (3), Anacardiaceae (2), Convolvulaceae (2), Moraceae (2), Plantaginaceae (2), Verbenaceae (2), Zygophyllaceae (2), Amaryllidaceae (2), Acanthaceae (1), Araceae (1), Arecaceae (1), Asphodelaceae (1), Athyriaceae (1), Berberidaceae (1), Cannabaceae (1), Commelinaceae (1), Cordiaceae (1), Cyperaceae (1), Equisetaceae (1), Geraniaceae(1), Heliotropiaceae (1), Hypericaceae (1), Lythraceae (1), Meliaceae (1), Linderniaceae (1), Nitrariaceae (1), Oxalidaceae (1), Papavaraceae (1), Portulacaceae (1), Punicaceae (1), Ranunculaceae (1), Rutaceae (1), Salvadoraceae (1), Spinadaceae (1), Tamaricaceae (1), Typhaceae (1), Urticaceae (1), Viticeae (1), Zingiberaceae (1) (Fig. 2). Our results were parallel with a research study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] that Asteraceae was the dominant family in terms of plant species number (11 spp). A study conducted by Dastagir et al. [35] concluded that Asteraceae was the dominant family having (7) plant species followed by Apiaceae (4), Lamiaceae (3), and Fabaceae (3) while conducting research studies on floristic diversity and medicinal plants of Chitral, Pakistan. Similar results were also reported by previous literature [36].

Table 2 Ethnobotanical and traditional use of plant resources of study area

Fig. 2

Number of plant species with their family names in the study area

Herbs were the dominant plant species (75%), followed by trees (14%), and shrubs (11%) (Fig. 3). Herbs (69%) were the dominant life forms used in the formulation of herbal recipes followed by trees (15%), shrubs (12%), and climbers (3%) [37]. Zareef et al. [38] reported 169 medicinal plant species and the family Poaceae was dominant having 17 plant species from District Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Herbs (61%) were the dominant life form and leaves (35%) were frequently used as part of plant species. Rahman et al. [39] documented that herbaceous plants were the dominant plant species (259) and the family Asteraceae had a maximum number of plant species (36) while studying the Mahnoor valley of lessor Himalaya, Pakistan.

Fig. 3

Life forms of plant species found in the study area

Mesophytes were the dominant plants (92%), followed by xerophytes (4%), hydrophytes (3%), and epiphytes (1) (Fig. 4). Saman et al. [40] reported 74 plant species belonging to 39 families were used in the preparation of 45 polyherbal and 101 monoherbal recipes for treating different types of diseases from Shakardara and adjacent villages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. Rehman et al. [41] documented 108 plant species belonging to 54 families used to treat 119 different types of ailments from Shawal Valley District North Waziristan, Pakistan. Ahmad et al. [42] reported 112 plant species in which 84 plant species were used for medicinal, 35 plant species fodder, 26 plant species marketing, 24 plant species fuel and 14 plant species for ornamental purposes from district Kotli Pakistan. A racent study by Amin et al. [43] reported that herbs (72%) were dominant growth form followed by trees (17%) and shrubs (10%) in district Kohistan, North Pakistan.

Fig. 4

Habitat of plant species found in the study area

In herbal preparation, the herbaceous life form was utilized most frequently (78 plant species; 52%), followed by shrubs (27 plant species; 18%), trees (25 plant species; 16.6%), and ferns (5 plant species; 3.3%), grasses (12 plant species; 8%), and epiphytes or climbers [31]. Umair et al. [44] reported that the wild herbaceous flora made up 51% of the reported plant species, while studying ethnomedicinal local flora of Punjab, Pakistan. Perennial herbs were the most prevalent living behavior in the research area. Medicinal plants often have perpetual life cycles. Wild trees (13%) accounted of the medicinal flora, wild grasses and shrubs (8%) each, cultivated herbs (7%), shrubs (6%), grasses (5%) and cultivated grass and wild ferns for 1% each [45]. Similar results were reported by [46] and documented the leaves of Mentha longifolia, Mentha arvensis etc. for fresh salad and Medicago plant species as a leafy vegetable.

Parts of the plant species used in ethnomedicines

Leaves were the most dominant part of plant species, while rhizome was the least used part of plants for different purposes (Fig. 5). Their percentage was in leaves (43%), fruits (20%), whole plant (17%), stem (6%), seeds (5%), roots (4%), inflorescence (2%), bulbs (1%) and rhizome (1%). Similar results were reported by Bibi et al. [34] that, the leaves (24%) of the medicinal plants were the most frequently used part in the preparation of recipes. Aziz et al. [13] demonstrated that leaves (70%) were the dominant part of plant species used for the treatment of diabetes, followed by fruits (49%), seeds (20%), stem (10%), barks (9%), and whole plant (9%) while researching medicinal plants of northwest Pakistan. Young shoots and leaves (30%) were the most used part of plant species followed by fruits (18%), seeds (15%), bulbs (6%), and rhizomes (3%) in preparation of herbal medicines [47]. Ahmad et al. [48] reported that herbs (58%) were dominant life forms of all reported plants, followed by shrubs (28%), trees (12%), and climbers (2%).

Fig. 5

Parts of plants plant species used for different purposes

Our research study was in line with previous studies [49,50,51,52]. The leaves (33%) were the most often used part of the plant, followed by roots (17%), fruits (14%), the entire plant (12%), and rhizomes (9%), stems (6%), barks (5%), and seeds (4%). Similar results were also reported by [49] that leaves (70%) were the most commonly used plant parts in medicines, followed by seeds (10%), roots (6%), latex ( %), bark, bulb, flowers, tubers, and rhizomes (2% each) while conducting research in lesser Himalaya northern Pakistan [53, 54]. Concluded that the leaves of the plants were frequently used part in ethnomedicines while conducting a research study on the ethnobotany of the north west of Pakistan. Rehman et al. [55] suggested that the leaves (43.90%) of medicinal plants were frequently used in the preparation of remedies for the treatment of dental disorders. Similar results were also reported by Akhtar et al. [56], leaves (24%) were dominant part of plant species used for different purposes followed by fruits (18%) and roots (15%) in district Swat, Pakistan. Adnan et al. [57] reported that leaves were the dominant part of (34%) plant species used in the preparation of ethnomedicines in war affected areas of North West Pakistan. Ahmed et al. [58] reported that leaves (36.61%) were mostly used part of plant species for making indigenous recipe followed by fruits (24.11%) while studying ethnobotanical use of plants plant species in Tehsil Murree, Northwest Pakistan. The leaves and roots (17 plant species), fruits (16 plant species), seeds and nuts (15 plant species), bark (14 plant species) and gums and resins (13 plant species) were used to make various medications [59].

Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species

Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species for 21 diseases are given in (Table 3). The highest informant consensus factor (0.97) was recorded for kidney disorders. The lowest informant consensus factor (0.70) was recorded for chest infection. It is an indication that the majority of the plant species were traditionally used for treating different types of diseases from alopecia to xeroderma. Our findings were accordance to previous literature as Bibi et al. [60] documented the highest ICF value for A. millefolium (0.19) and the lowest ICF value for B. sindica (0.02) in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. An ethnobotanical study conducted by Aziz et al. [61] in tribal areas of Pakistan documented that C. procera had the highest ICF value (0.86), followed by C. sativa (0.82), M. piperita (0.82), M. longifolia (0.76), A. sativum (0.73), C. sativum (0.73) and F. vulgare (0.72). In an ethnobotanical study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] the highest ICF value (1.00) was calculated for the antidote category. Ali et al. [62] reported that participants have categorized plant uses into 15 categories while studying the floristic diversity of Swat valley, Pakistan. Almost nearly nine percent of the participants agree on choosing and usage of plants for the treatment of evil eyes, with comparable findings for body cuts (8.2%) and psychological/neural diseases (8.0%). Respondents agree that B. lyceum leads in all five criteria. S. laureola is also a key ethnobotanical plant, rating second in the salience index, sixth in the relative importance index, seventh in cultural value index, and third in the cultural importance index. It ranks thirty-fifth in the conservation priority index. Abbas et al. [63] reported that 53 percent of the plant species had many uses, 21% were eaten as wild fruits and vegetables, and 43 percent were used to treat various illnesses. The most commonly used medicinal plant species were determined to be Thymus linearis, Hippophae rhamnoides, Convolvulus arvensis; that with the highest RFCi values (0.54, 0.51, and 0.48, respectively) while studying the flora of Karakoram Range northern Pakistan. In an ethnobotanical study conducted in northern Punjab, Pakistan, herbs from 35 different plant species are utilized to treat various diseases [59]. Adnan et al. [57] reported that he use of plant species for carminative purposes were highest (14 spp), followed by blood purification in war affected areas of Northwest Pakistan.

Table 3 ICF values for different ailments in study area

Use values of single plant

Use values determined the use of a particular plant species for the treatment of a disease that was cited by many informants. Use values of a single plant species were elucidated in (Table 4). S. cumini was highly cited (0.78) by the informants for the treatment of ear diseases. C. lemon was less cited (0.03) by the local inhabitants for the relief of vomiting. The higher use values of plants in the study area mean that the particular plant species was frequently found in that area. Maximum numbers of plant species (16 spp) were used for the treatment of indigestion, followed by diarrhea (11 spp) and cough (10 spp) [41]. Bibi et al. [34] documented the highest use values reports for C. colocynthis (5 URs), C. tuberculata (5 URs), M. neglecta (5 URs), and M. longifolia (5 URs). Aziz et al. [61] concluded that the use values of a single plant were recorded for B. lycium (0.94) followed by V. indica (0.90), I. rugosus (0.88), F. vulgare (0.87), P. harmala (0.86), S. virginianum (0.85), and C. fistula (0.79) in a research study conducted in tribal areas of Pakistan. Bibi et al. [60] reported that A. baluchistanicum (0.73) and B. baluchistanica (0.56) have the highest use reports of (8 each) and lowest use reports of T. stocksii (0.13). Low use values did not mean that the plant species was not important; it meant that the plant species was less available to local inhabitants. Plant species with low use value should not be ignored and their use should be transferred to the next coming generation. An ethnobotanical study conducted by Khan and Badshah [64] in district Charsadda, Pakistan revealed that the majority of the plant species (164) were used as fodder/forage, fruits (27 spp), vegetables (28 spp), fuel (47 spp), medicinal (66 spp), timber (21 spp), thatching (8 spp), insect attractant (29 spp), and only 4 plant species were used as spices (condiments), while some plant species, such as Dryopteris stewartii, Equisetum arvense, Eichhornia crassipes have not reported for any use. Khan et al. [65] suggested that the importance of every medicinal plant species in the area was significant,some have gained significant traction in the local healthcare system. Dioscorea deltoidea, for example, was used locally as an anthelmintic and tonic for urinary tract infections. Podophyllum hexandrum was used by the local hakeems (traditional medicine specialists) to cure cancer and stomach issues. Berberis pseudoumbellata fruit was prized as a tonic, while its powdered bark was used locally to cure fever, backaches, jaundice, and urinary tract infections. Cypripedium cordigerum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea were two orchid plant species that were used as nerve tonics and aphrodisiacs. Two other notable plant species for medicinal purposes were Aesculus indica and Cedrus deodara. Cedrus deodara oil was used to treat skin conditions, and Aesculus indica powdered fruit nuts were used to treat colic and eliminate worms. In terms of both plant species diversity and frequency of citation (FC), the Rosaceae family emerged as the dominant group. Fruit was the portion most frequently consumed, and July was the best month to find wild fruit products. Olea ferrugenia was the most often cited plant species, with an FC = 1. Amaranthus spinosus came in second (FC = 0.93). Approximately 14% (7) of the recorded plant species were commercially viable, while 27% (14) were initially reported to be utilized as wild food products plant species in Pakistan [30].

Table 4 Use values of different plant species for the treatment of different diseases

Traditional uses of plants (FL%)

Fidelity level was used to identify plant species that were mostly preferred by local inhabitants. Fidelity-level percentage results are shown in (Table 5). It determined the value of a plant species for medicinal purposes as well as other purposes. The highest fidelity level percentage (91.8) was recorded for A. sativum for the treatment of alopecia and other uses. The lowest fidelity percentage (41.7) was recorded for M. longifolia for wound healing and other traditional uses. Our research study was concordant with the other recent research studies. In an ethnobotanical study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] the highest fidelity level (100%) was calculated for the C. tuberculata, C. colocynthis, S. quettense, and A. welhemsii in Mastung District of Baluchistan, Pakistan. According to a research study conducted by Ullah et al. [66] on two medicinal plants plant species in District Bannu, Pakistan, the fidelity level of B. lyceum (89.9%) was highest for the treatment of gastro ulcers followed by D. blancoi (62.2%) for abdominal diseases, and Solanum nigrum and S. thea (53.3%) for blood disorders while the lowest fidelity level was recorded for the A. grahamianus, C. longifolia, and X. strumarium. In a research study conducted by Bibi et al. [60] in Baluchistan province, the fidelity level of two plant species viz S. quettense and B. baluchistanica were (100%). Rehman et al. [55] reported the highest fidelity level (100%) for B. ciliata, J. regia, and E. procera followed by B. lyceum (97.67%) for the treatment of various tooth problems. A research study conducted by Liaqat et al. [67] suggested that B. lyceum and P. lenceolata had maximum fidelity levels (100%). According to Hussain et al. [68] herbs were commonly employed to treat digestive issues, including carminative (12 spp), diarrhea (11 spp), laxative (11 spp), and ulcers, (7 spp), appetizer (5 spp), digestive pain (4 spp), and antihelmintic (4 spp). Khan et al. [69] reported the use of certain plant species as a food in different cooking recipe like raw form, cooked, boiled in water etc. used by three ethnic groups in northwest Pakistan. Aziz et al. [70] reported various plant species that were used for the treatment of animal ailments in Pakistan.

Table 5 Fidelity level of studied medicinal plants in study area

Average direct matrix ranking

The average direct matrix ranking by 15 informants for 10 plant species was revealed in (Table 6). The highest ranking (1st) for ten plant species was recorded for their use in medicinal purposes. It was followed by Ethno- veterinary uses and food plants (2nd), Fuel plants and Timber /construction plants (3rd), Vegetable (4th), Furniture (5th), Fodder plants (6th), and Agricultural tools, Honey bee plants and Ornamental plants (7th). The last ranking (8th) was recorded for fencing, oil extraction, and fruit purposes by 15 key informants. The over-collection of plant species for fuel, food, and construction purposes leads to extinction and causes a huge loss of biodiversity. A study conducted by Khan and Khan [71] suggested that wood from timber plants was exported to nearby industries for making furniture and timber. Plant species like A. nilotica, D. sissoo, and Z. jujuba were under high pressure in the study area due to the high market value for timber/construction products. According to a study done in Pakistan's Gujrat region, D. sissoo used to make 80% of industrial furniture. The most commonly used non-timber forest product plant species include A. nilotica, A. modesta, Z. nummularia, C. decidua, and M. boxifolia. Our results were similar to that of Murad et al. [72] and reported a high rank of plant species that were used for medicinal purposes. Ahmad et al. [73] reported that the average direct matrix ranking (DMR) of tree plant species, Olea ferruginea was shown to have the highest multipurpose usage (56), followed by firewood (28), fodder (20), fruit and food (20), hedges and fences (12), while studying the ethno pharmacological uses of plant in Kashmir, Pakistan. Ahmed et al. [58] reported that plant species were used for medicinal and fodder purpose (27.93%) followed by other uses (16.90%), wild fruits (6.55%), and vegetables (5.52%) and for ethnoveterinary (3.72%), while studying ethnobotanical use of plants plant species in Tehsil Murree, Northwest Pakistan. Our results were parallel with the report of Aziz et al. [13] while studying the traditional use of wild food plants in Kaniguram, northwest Pakistan.

Table 6 average direct matrix ranking (DMR) of 15 key informants for 10 plant species

Plant species common among study areas (Jaccard index/Similarity index)

Jaccard index result showed that the plant species found in urban area of Bannu and Kohat were more similar (JI = 0.88). The similarity index of plant species found in urban area of Bannu and Peshawar was 0.44. Similarity index of plant species found in urban area of Kohat and Peshawar was 0.22 that were less similar [Fig. 6]. Plant species (73) were common in all the three study areas. Plants plant species (4) were common in Bannu and Kohat study areas and plant species (2) were common in Bannu and Peshawar study areas. Plant species (4) were common in Kohat and Peshawar study areas. A research study conducted by Bahadur et al. [32] on ethnobotany of Peshawar valley reported the highest JI (0.87) and lowest (0.50). Highest the JI values indicated that these areas were close together, while lowest JI indicated that the habitat of plant species, cultural diversity and population density were far away from each other [74]. Similar results to our study were also reported by Amjad et al. [31] that the plant species found in neighboring areas,Pearl valley and Toli peer were more similar. An ethnopharmacological study conducted by [33] concluded, while studying the ethnopharmacological uses of plants in Pakistan that the highest similarity/jaccard index means that the study area was sharing same plant resources and floristic diversity. Similar report was documented by Abbas et al. [23] that there were certain common plant species that were traditionally used by different communities in Kurram, northwest Pakistan. Our findings were in accordance with Khalid et al. [75]. Aziz et al. [76] reported the similarity and overlapping the use of plant species utilized by different ethnics groups in northwest Baluchistan, Pakistan. Our findings were in accordance with the previous studies conducted in nearby areas of northwest, Pakistan [54, 77,78,79].

Fig. 6

Number of plant species common in urban areas of Bannu, Kohat and Peshawar (Jaccard Index)

Novelty of the study

The findings of current study were compared with 30 previous documented studies and some new traditional uses of plants were reported that were not found in previous studies. The comparison was based on similarity in geography, vegetation and climatic condition. The study was novel due to selection of urban ethnobotany and finding ethnobotanical knowledge because earlier studies focused on rural and remote areas ethnobotany. Some novel findings were the use of Caralluma tuberculata fresh stems for improving sexual desire in males and act as aphrodisiacs. Fruits extract in raw form of Lycopersicm esculentum and Cucumis sativus for glowing of face and to remove pimples. The milky exudates of Calotropis procera leaves were used for bees and wasps sting for the first time.

Conclusion and future recommendation

The current study concludes that the study area has a rich source of medicinal flora and local inhabitants are heavily dependent on plant species for firewood, fodder, and medicinal needs. Herbs and leaves were the dominant life forms and used due to bioactive compounds. The native medicinal flora is being overused by the local inhabitants due to a lack of resources, changing lifestyles, and financial restrictions. It was observed that young people are completely unaware of this treasure of ethnomedical information, with elders, Hakeems (traditional practitioners), and Pensaries (local herb vendors) being the only groups with access to it. Because of the shift in societal values brought about by scientific and technological advancements, younger generations are adopting the new traditions much more quickly. Knowledge about medicinal plants will become outdated due to the influence of contemporary cultural shifts. Therefore, before indigenous knowledge disappears, it is crucial to record the native flora and their ethnomedicinal recipes. The main risks to the vegetation in the investigated area include overgrazing, collecting fodder, logging, collecting medicinal herbs, and invasive plant species. Multipurpose plant species like D. sissoo and A. modesta are now vulnerable as a result of these practices. Therefore, for the protection of threatened plant species, various preventive actions (restricted grazing, reforestation, rangeland management, etc.) must be taken. Additionally, as a long-term conservation initiative, both in-situ and ex-situ measures should be used. There may be more conservation education. The extension of horticultural products, particularly fruits, off-season vegetables, and mushrooms, could boost the local economy and decrease pressure on the trees from fuel wood. To further aid in the preservation of the indigenous flora, the traditional knowledge of the area must be documented. It is possible to educate and train the local community in the sustainable gathering and utilization of medicinal flora. This study is limited to only three urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Further ethnobotanical research studies are needed to explore these natural resources.